Cervical Cancer

1. Clinical Overview

Cervical cancer is a malignant neoplasm arising from the epithelium of the uterine cervix, representing the fourth most common cancer in women worldwide. [1] It is unique among cancers as being largely preventable through vaccination and screening programmes, yet it remains a leading cause of cancer mortality in low-resource settings where screening access is limited. [2]

The overwhelming majority (99.7%) of cervical cancers are caused by persistent infection with high-risk Human Papillomavirus (hrHPV), particularly types 16 and 18. [3] The disease typically develops over 10-15 years through progressive pre-malignant changes (Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia, CIN), providing a significant window of opportunity for detection and treatment of pre-invasive disease. [4]

Historical Context

Before the introduction of cytology-based screening in the 1960s (the "Pap smear"), cervical cancer was the leading cause of cancer death in women in developed countries. Implementation of organized screening programmes has reduced incidence and mortality by 70-80% in countries with high coverage. [5] The identification of HPV as the causative agent (Nobel Prize 2008) and subsequent vaccine development represents one of the most significant advances in cancer prevention. [6]

Key Epidemiological Facts

Clinical Pearl: Examination Viva Pearl: Cervical cancer is the only solid organ cancer where we know the causative agent (HPV) in virtually 100% of cases, making it uniquely preventable through vaccination. The natural history—from HPV infection → persistent infection → CIN → invasive cancer—takes 10-15 years, providing multiple opportunities for intervention through screening and treatment of pre-invasive disease.

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2. Epidemiology

Global Burden

Cervical cancer demonstrates profound health inequity. In 2020, 90% of deaths occurred in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), with age-standardised mortality rates 18 times higher in sub-Saharan Africa compared to North America. [1]

High-Incidence Regions:

• Sub-Saharan Africa: 23-35 per 100,000
• South-Eastern Asia: 15-20 per 100,000
• Latin America/Caribbean: 12-18 per 100,000

Low-Incidence Regions:

• Western Europe: 6-8 per 100,000
• North America: 5-7 per 100,000
• Australia/New Zealand: 5-6 per 100,000

This disparity reflects differences in screening coverage, HPV vaccination uptake, and access to treatment. [2]

UK-Specific Data

The bimodal distribution reflects:

1. Early peak (30-34): Screen-detected or symptomatic disease in younger women
2. Later peak (50-64): Disease in women who missed screening or developed interval cancers

Exam Detail: For MRCOG: Know that cervical cancer incidence has fallen by 70% since the introduction of screening in the UK in 1988, but coverage has declined from 76% (2010) to 69% (2020), particularly in younger women. [7] This is a public health concern as screening prevents an estimated 4,500 cases annually in the UK.

Risk Factors

Established Risk Factors

Co-factors in HPV-Positive Women

Not all women with persistent hrHPV develop cancer. Co-factors include:

• Viral load: Higher viral load → increased risk [13]
• HPV type: 16 and 18 have highest progression rates
• Viral integration: Integration into host genome (vs episomal) → higher risk
• Host immunity: HLA type influences susceptibility [14]
• Smoking: Directly synergistic with HPV [9]

Clinical Pearl: Screening Counselling Point: Combined oral contraceptives (COC) slightly increase cervical cancer risk, but this must be balanced against significant benefits (contraception, reduced ovarian/endometrial cancer). The absolute risk increase is small, and regular screening mitigates the risk. Never discontinue COC based on cervical cancer risk alone.

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3. Aetiology and Pathophysiology

The HPV Causal Pathway

HPV Biology

Human Papillomavirus is a double-stranded DNA virus of the Papillomaviridae family. Over 200 genotypes exist, classified into:

• High-risk (oncogenic): 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 68
• Low-risk (non-oncogenic): 6, 11, 40, 42, 43, 44 (cause genital warts)

HPV-16 accounts for 50-55% of cervical cancers globally, while HPV-18 accounts for 15-20%. Together, they cause 70% of cases. [3,8]

Transmission and Natural History

HPV is transmitted through sexual contact, including skin-to-skin contact (not requiring penetrative intercourse). The virus infects basal epithelial cells of the transformation zone—the junction between the ectocervix (squamous epithelium) and endocervix (columnar epithelium).

Natural History Timeline:

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                    HPV INFECTION TO INVASIVE CANCER                         │
├─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│                                                                             │
│   INITIAL INFECTION (Age ~16-25)                                           │
│   └─ 80% of sexually active women acquire HPV in lifetime [15]             │
│   └─ Most infections are transient                                         │
│                              ↓                                              │
│   ┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐       │
│   │  CLEARANCE (90% within 2 years)                                │       │
│   │  • Spontaneous immune-mediated clearance                       │       │
│   │  • No CIN development                                          │       │
│   └────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘       │
│                              ↓                                              │
│   PERSISTENT INFECTION (10% of infections)                                 │
│   └─ Failure of immune clearance                                           │
│   └─ Continued viral replication in basal cells                            │
│                              ↓                                              │
│   ┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐       │
│   │  CIN 1 (Low-Grade Dysplasia)                     [Years 1-3]  │       │
│   │  • Koilocytosis (HPV cytopathic effect)                        │       │
│   │  • Dysplasia confined to lower 1/3 of epithelium               │       │
│   │  • 60% regress spontaneously                                   │       │
│   └────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘       │
│                              ↓                                              │
│   ┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐       │
│   │  CIN 2 (Moderate Dysplasia)                      [Years 3-7]  │       │
│   │  • Dysplasia extending to middle 1/3 of epithelium             │       │
│   │  • 40% regress, 40% persist, 20% progress                      │       │
│   └────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘       │
│                              ↓                                              │
│   ┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐       │
│   │  CIN 3 (Severe Dysplasia/Carcinoma In Situ)     [Years 7-12] │       │
│   │  • Full-thickness dysplasia                                    │       │
│   │  • 12% regress, 30% persist, 50%+ progress if untreated        │       │
│   │  • Basement membrane remains INTACT                            │       │
│   └────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘       │
│                              ↓                                              │
│   ┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐       │
│   │  INVASIVE CARCINOMA                              [Years 10-15+]│       │
│   │  • Basement membrane breached                                  │       │
│   │  • Stromal invasion                                            │       │
│   │  • Metastatic potential                                        │       │
│   └────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘       │
│                                                                             │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

Exam Detail: Molecular Pathogenesis: E6 and E7 Oncoproteins

The HPV genome contains early (E) and late (L) genes. E6 and E7 are the critical oncoproteins that drive carcinogenesis:

E6 Oncoprotein:

• Binds and degrades p53 (the "guardian of the genome")
• p53 normally triggers apoptosis in damaged cells
• Loss of p53 → accumulation of genetic mutations → neoplastic transformation
• E6 also activates telomerase → immortalization of cells

E7 Oncoprotein:

• Binds and inactivates Rb (Retinoblastoma protein)
• Rb normally inhibits E2F transcription factors that drive S-phase entry
• Loss of Rb → uncontrolled cell cycle progression (G1 → S phase)
• Cells bypass normal G1/S checkpoint

Viral Integration: In early infection, HPV DNA exists as an episome (circular, extrachromosomal). Progression to high-grade CIN/cancer involves integration of viral DNA into the host genome, typically disrupting the E2 gene. E2 normally represses E6/E7 transcription, so its loss leads to:

• Upregulation of E6/E7 expression
• Sustained p53/Rb inactivation
• Irreversible neoplastic transformation

This is why HPV DNA integration is a marker of high-grade disease and poor prognosis. [16]

Histological Types

Clinical Pearl: Rising Adenocarcinoma Incidence: Adenocarcinoma rates are increasing, particularly in younger women, while SCC rates decline. [17] This is partially because:

1. Adenocarcinomas arise higher in the endocervix, making them harder to detect on cytology
2. They are less responsive to screening
3. HPV-18 (associated with ADC) may be less well-covered by early vaccines

This underscores the importance of HPV vaccination (which targets HPV-18) and consideration of HPV primary screening over cytology alone.

The Transformation Zone

The transformation zone (TZ) is the critical anatomical site where:

• Squamous epithelium (ectocervix) meets columnar epithelium (endocervix)

• Squamous metaplasia occurs (columnar → squamous)

• 90%+ of cervical cancers arise [18]

• Pre-menarche: TZ at external os

• Reproductive age: TZ moves outward (ectropion), exposing columnar epithelium

• Post-menopause: TZ recedes into endocervical canal

This dynamic makes colposcopy more difficult in post-menopausal women (TZ not fully visible) and explains why younger women are at higher risk (larger TZ exposed to HPV).

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4. Clinical Presentation

Symptoms

Early-Stage Disease (Stage IA–IB)

Asymptomatic in the majority of cases, detected through:

• Screening-detected abnormality (most common in countries with organized programmes)

When symptomatic:

• Post-Coital Bleeding (PCB): The cardinal symptom of cervical cancer

  • Occurs in 50-60% of symptomatic cases
  • "Mechanism: Friable tumour bleeds with contact"
  • "Red Flag: Any PCB warrants urgent 2-week-wait referral"

• Intermenstrual Bleeding (IMB)

  • Irregular, unprovoked bleeding between periods
  • Overlap with benign causes (polyps, hormonal), but cannot be dismissed

• Post-Menopausal Bleeding (PMB)

  • 10% of PMB cases are due to cervical cancer (90% endometrial pathology)
  • Requires exclusion of both cervical and endometrial cancer

• Vaginal Discharge

  • Watery, blood-stained, or mucopurulent
  • Becomes offensive in advanced disease (tumour necrosis)

Clinical Pearl: Examination Teaching Point: "A normal-appearing cervix does NOT exclude cervical cancer."

Early cancers may be endocervical (not visible) or appear as subtle irregularities. Post-coital bleeding in a woman with a "normal" cervix still requires:

1. Cervical screening (if not up-to-date)
2. Colposcopy referral if persistent or high-risk features
3. Consider endocervical curettage to sample higher lesions

Never falsely reassure based on macroscopic appearance alone.

Advanced-Stage Disease (Stage IIB–IV)

Uraemia from bilateral ureteric obstruction is a common cause of death in untreated advanced cervical cancer. [19]

Signs

Speculum Examination

Bimanual Pelvic Examination

Critical for clinical staging (FIGO 2018 still includes clinical exam):

Exam Detail: MRCOG Clinical Skills Station:

In an OSCE station with a simulated patient or model, you may be asked to perform/describe a clinical staging examination for cervical cancer. Key steps:

1. Inspection (Speculum):

   • Size and appearance of visible tumour
   • Extent of vaginal involvement (upper 2/3 vs lower 1/3)
   • Contact bleeding

2. Bimanual Examination:

   • Cervical mobility: Mobile vs fixed
   • Parametrial involvement:
     • Place fingers in lateral vaginal fornix
     • Palpate laterally toward pelvic sidewall
     • Assess for induration/nodularity (IIB) vs sidewall fixation (IIIB)
   • Uterine size: Enlarged if endometrial extension

3. Rectal Examination (essential for staging):

   • Assess for rectovaginal septum involvement
   • Palpate for rectal mucosal invasion (IVA)
   • Assess parametrium posteriorly

Model Answer: "I would perform an examination under anaesthetic (EUA) for accurate staging, as clinical examination awake is often limited by pain and patient anxiety. The EUA allows thorough assessment of parametrial extent, vaginal involvement, and rectal examination to inform treatment planning."

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5. Differential Diagnosis

Clinical Pearl: The "Friable Cervix" Differential:

Any woman presenting with post-coital bleeding and a friable, irregular, or ulcerated cervix should be assumed to have cervical cancer until proven otherwise. Perform:

1. Urgent colposcopy and biopsy
2. Do NOT delay for cytology results
3. Refer via 2-week-wait pathway

Benign conditions (polyps, ectropion) are diagnoses of exclusion after histological confirmation.

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6. Investigations

Diagnostic Pathway

┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                    DIAGNOSTIC ALGORITHM                                  │
├──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│                                                                          │
│   CLINICAL SUSPICION (PCB, IMB, abnormal cytology, visible lesion)      │
│                              ↓                                           │
│   ┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐      │
│   │  URGENT COLPOSCOPY (2-week-wait referral)                   │      │
│   │  • Acetic acid application (acetowhite changes)              │      │
│   │  • Lugol's iodine (abnormal areas remain pale)               │      │
│   │  • Directed biopsy of abnormal areas                         │      │
│   │  • Endocervical curettage (if lesion not visible)            │      │
│   └──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘      │
│                              ↓                                           │
│   HISTOLOGICAL DIAGNOSIS (Gold Standard)                                │
│   • Invasive carcinoma confirmed                                        │
│   • Histological type (SCC vs ADC)                                      │
│   • Grade (well/moderate/poorly differentiated)                         │
│                              ↓                                           │
│   ┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐      │
│   │  STAGING INVESTIGATIONS                                      │      │
│   │  • MRI Pelvis (tumour size, parametrial invasion, nodes)     │      │
│   │  • CT Chest/Abdomen/Pelvis (metastases, hydronephrosis)      │      │
│   │  • PET-CT (if Stage IB2+ for nodal/distant disease)          │      │
│   │  • Examination Under Anaesthetic (EUA) ± Cystoscopy/Sigmoidoscopy │ │
│   └──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘      │
│                              ↓                                           │
│   FIGO 2018 STAGE ASSIGNED                                              │
│   • Clinical stage (exam, imaging)                                      │
│   • Surgical stage (if lymphadenectomy performed)                       │
│                              ↓                                           │
│   MULTIDISCIPLINARY TEAM (MDT) DISCUSSION                               │
│   • Treatment plan: Surgery vs Chemoradiotherapy vs Palliative          │
│                                                                          │
└──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

Colposcopy

Colposcopy is a specialized examination using a binocular microscope (6-40× magnification) to visualize the cervix and identify abnormal areas for targeted biopsy.

Technique:

1. Acetic Acid (3-5%): Applied to cervix

   • Normal squamous epithelium: No change
   • CIN/Cancer: Turns white (acetowhite) due to increased nuclear density
   • More intense/rapid whitening → higher-grade lesion

2. Lugol's Iodine (Schiller's Test):

   • Normal epithelium: Stains dark brown (glycogen-rich)
   • CIN/Cancer: Remains pale/yellow (glycogen-poor)

Abnormal Colposcopic Features:

• Acetowhite epithelium (dense, opaque white)
• Mosaicism: "Chicken-wire" vascular pattern
• Punctation: Dotted capillary pattern
• Atypical vessels: Irregular, corkscrew, dilated vessels (sign of invasion)
• Irregular surface contour: Loss of smooth surface
• Contact bleeding: Friable tissue

Transformation Zone Visibility:

• Type 1: Fully visible on ectocervix (ideal)
• Type 2: Partially visible; extends into canal
• Type 3: Not visible (post-menopausal); may need endocervical speculum or EUA

Exam Detail: MRCOG Viva Question: "What are the limitations of colposcopy?"

Model Answer:

1. Operator-dependent: Requires training and experience
2. Poor sensitivity for endocervical lesions: May miss adenocarcinomas arising high in canal
3. Limited in post-menopausal women: Transformation zone not visible (Type 3 TZ)
4. Does not assess invasion depth: Biopsy histology is essential to differentiate CIN from invasive disease
5. Cannot assess lymph node status: Imaging (MRI/PET-CT) required for staging
6. Patient discomfort: Anxiety, pain, vagal reactions

Therefore, colposcopy is a diagnostic tool for identifying abnormal areas, but histology is the gold standard for diagnosis.

Biopsy Techniques

Staging Investigations

MRI Pelvis

Gold standard for local staging (preferred over CT for soft tissue resolution). [20]

Assesses:

• Tumour size (maximum diameter)
• Stromal invasion depth
• Parametrial invasion (Stage IIB)
• Vaginal involvement (Stage II)
• Pelvic sidewall invasion (Stage IIIB)
• Bladder/rectal invasion (Stage IVA)
• Pelvic lymph nodes (size 1cm short axis = suspicious)

Key MRI Findings:

PET-CT

Indications:

• Stage IB2 or higher (tumours ≥2cm) for nodal and distant metastases detection
• Recurrent disease surveillance
• Treatment response assessment

Sensitivity/Specificity:

• Lymph node detection: 82% sensitivity, 95% specificity [21]
• Superior to CT/MRI for para-aortic nodes and distant metastases

Clinical Pearl: PET-CT Changes Practice: PET-CT detection of nodal disease upstages patients to Stage IIIC, changing management from surgery to chemoradiotherapy and altering radiotherapy fields (extended-field if para-aortic nodes positive). Studies show PET-CT changes management in 30-40% of patients with locally advanced disease. [21]

Examination Under Anaesthetic (EUA)

Indications:

• Clinical staging (especially if awake exam limited by pain/anxiety)
• Assessment of parametrial involvement (bimanual exam)
• Cystoscopy (if bladder involvement suspected)
• Proctoscopy/Sigmoidoscopy (if rectal involvement suspected)

Components:

1. Bimanual pelvic exam: Parametrial induration, sidewall fixation
2. Speculum exam: Vaginal extent
3. Cystoscopy: Mucosal invasion (requires biopsy confirmation for IVA staging)
4. Proctoscopy: Rectal mucosal invasion (requires biopsy)

Laboratory Investigations

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7. Staging (FIGO 2018)

The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) staging system for cervical cancer was revised in 2018 to incorporate imaging and pathological findings. [22]

Key Changes in FIGO 2018

1. Imaging and pathology can now be used for staging (previously clinical-only)
2. Lymph node involvement automatically upstages to Stage IIIC (regardless of primary tumour size)
   • IIIC1: Pelvic nodes only
   • IIIC2: Para-aortic nodes (with or without pelvic nodes)
3. Stage IB subdivisions changed:
   • IB1: < 2cm
   • IB2: 2-4cm
   • IB3: ≥4cm (previously Stage IIA)

FIGO 2018 Staging System

Exam Detail: MRCOG Viva Scenario: "A 42-year-old woman with a 3cm cervical tumour. MRI shows no parametrial invasion, but PET-CT demonstrates a 1.5cm pelvic lymph node. What is her stage?"

Answer: Stage IIIC1 (pelvic lymph node involvement).

Key Teaching Point: Under FIGO 2018, lymph node involvement automatically upstages to IIIC, regardless of the primary tumour size or local extent. This patient would previously have been Stage IB2 (clinical exam + MRI), but PET-CT nodal detection changes management to chemoradiotherapy (not surgery).

Management Implication: Surgery is not indicated for Stage IIIC. Treatment is concurrent chemoradiotherapy with cisplatin + external beam radiotherapy + brachytherapy.

Critical Staging Distinctions

Clinical Pearl: Why Does Parametrial Invasion (IIB) Contraindicate Surgery?

The parametrium contains:

• Uterine artery and ureteric tunnel
• Lymphatics draining to pelvic nodes
• Autonomic nerves (bladder/bowel function)

Once tumour invades parametrium:

1. Surgical margins are often positive (tumour extends beyond resectable tissue)
2. High risk of nodal involvement (60-70% have occult nodal disease)
3. Increased morbidity (ureteric injury, bladder atony, fistula risk)

Chemoradiotherapy achieves superior outcomes with lower morbidity in Stage IIB+. Surgery followed by adjuvant chemoradiotherapy ("triple modality") has worst outcomes due to compounded toxicity. [23]

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8. Management

Treatment Overview by Stage

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                    TREATMENT ALGORITHM BY STAGE                         │
├─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│                                                                         │
│   Stage IA1 (Invasion < 3mm)                                            │
│   └─ LLETZ or Simple Hysterectomy                                      │
│   └─ Lymphadenectomy: NO (risk of nodes < 1%)                          │
│                                                                         │
│   Stage IA2 (Invasion 3-5mm)                                           │
│   └─ Radical Hysterectomy + Pelvic Lymphadenectomy                     │
│   └─ OR: Radical Trachelectomy (if fertility desired)                  │
│                                                                         │
│   Stage IB1 (< 2cm)                                                     │
│   └─ Radical Hysterectomy + Pelvic Lymphadenectomy (OPEN preferred)    │
│   └─ OR: Radical Trachelectomy (if < 2cm, no LVSI, fertility desired)  │
│                                                                         │
│   Stage IB2 (2-4cm)                                                     │
│   └─ Radical Hysterectomy + Pelvic Lymphadenectomy (OPEN)              │
│   └─ OR: Chemoradiotherapy (equivalent outcomes)                       │
│                                                                         │
│   Stage IB3 (≥4cm) / IIA / IIB                                          │
│   └─ CHEMORADIOTHERAPY (cisplatin + EBRT + brachytherapy)              │
│                                                                         │
│   Stage III (IIIA/IIIB/IIIC)                                           │
│   └─ CHEMORADIOTHERAPY ± Extended-field RT (if IIIC2)                  │
│                                                                         │
│   Stage IVA (Bladder/Bowel invasion)                                   │
│   └─ Pelvic Exenteration (rare, selected cases)                        │
│   └─ OR: Palliative Chemoradiotherapy                                  │
│                                                                         │
│   Stage IVB (Distant metastases)                                       │
│   └─ Palliative Chemotherapy (Carboplatin/Paclitaxel + Bevacizumab)    │
│   └─ Immunotherapy (Pembrolizumab if PD-L1 positive)                   │
│                                                                         │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

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Surgical Management

Radical Hysterectomy (Wertheim's Hysterectomy)

Indications: Stage IA2–IB2 (selected IB2; tumours < 4cm with no parametrial invasion)

Procedure: Removal of:

• Uterus and cervix
• Upper 1/3 of vagina (1-2cm margin)
• Parametrium (lateral tissue containing uterine vessels, ureters, lymphatics)
• Uterosacral and cardinal ligaments
• Pelvic lymph nodes (external iliac, internal iliac, obturator, common iliac ± para-aortic sampling)

Classification (Querleu-Morrow 2017):

Surgical Approach:

Open (Laparotomy) is now preferred following the LACC Trial (2018). [24]

Key LACC Trial Findings:

• RCT comparing open vs minimally invasive (laparoscopic/robotic) radical hysterectomy
• Minimally invasive surgery associated with:
  • "Lower 4.5-year survival: 96.5% (open) vs 91.2% (MIS)"
  • "Higher recurrence: 3.5% (open) vs 8.4% (MIS)"
• Hazard ratio for death: 6.0 (MIS vs open)

Proposed Mechanisms for MIS Inferiority:

1. CO₂ insufflation: May disseminate tumour cells
2. Uterine manipulator: Disrupts tumour, increasing spillage
3. Lack of en-bloc resection: Piecemeal parametrial excision
4. Learning curve: Inadequate radicality

Current Practice: Open surgery is standard of care for radical hysterectomy. MIS may be considered in highly selected cases (IA2, < 2cm, no LVSI) by experienced surgeons, with extensive counselling. [25]

Exam Detail: MRCOG Viva Question: "What is the impact of the LACC trial on surgical practice?"

Model Answer: "The LACC trial (2018) was a landmark RCT comparing open versus minimally invasive radical hysterectomy for early cervical cancer (IA1-IB1, < 4cm). It was stopped early due to inferiority of the minimally invasive arm, with lower 4.5-year disease-free survival (86% vs 96.5%) and overall survival (91.2% vs 96.5%).

This has fundamentally changed practice:

1. Open surgery is now the gold standard for radical hysterectomy
2. Minimally invasive approaches are not routinely recommended
3. Patients must be counselled extensively if MIS is considered
4. Some surgeons reserve MIS for very select cases (IA2, < 2cm, no LVSI)

The trial highlights that oncological outcomes cannot be assumed equivalent between surgical approaches, even when short-term outcomes (blood loss, recovery) favour MIS."

Radical Trachelectomy (Fertility-Sparing Surgery)

Indications:

• Age < 40 (or strong fertility desire)
• Stage IA2–IB1 (< 2cm diameter)
• Squamous or adenocarcinoma (no small cell/neuroendocrine)
• No lymphovascular space invasion (LVSI)
• No lymph node involvement (confirmed by lymphadenectomy or sentinel node)
• Adequate cervical length (2cm remaining after excision)

Procedure:

• Removal of cervix + upper vagina + parametrium
• Pelvic lymphadenectomy (or sentinel node)
• Uterus is preserved, sutured to vaginal cuff ("neocervix")
• Permanent cerclage placed to prevent miscarriage

Approach:

• Vaginal: Traditional approach (limited parametrial resection)
• Abdominal/Laparoscopic: Greater parametrial resection (used for IB1 tumours)

Outcomes:

• 5-year survival: 95-97% (equivalent to radical hysterectomy in selected patients) [26]
• Pregnancy rate: 50-70%
• Live birth rate: 40-50%
• Miscarriage rate: 20-30% (higher than general population)
• Preterm delivery: 30-40%
• Mode of delivery: Mandatory Cesarean section (no cervix to dilate)

Counselling Points:

• Patients must understand oncological risk (5-10% recurrence)
• Obstetric risks: Miscarriage, preterm delivery, cervical insufficiency
• Delivery by C-section only
• Long-term follow-up essential (annual surveillance)

Clinical Pearl: Sentinel Lymph Node Mapping in Trachelectomy:

Sentinel lymph node (SLN) biopsy is increasingly used to avoid full lymphadenectomy in fertility-sparing surgery, reducing morbidity (lymphoedema).

Technique:

• Indocyanine green (ICG) or blue dye + Tc-99m injected into cervix
• Identification of first-draining nodes (usually obturator, external iliac)
• Ultrastaging of SLN (serial sectioning + immunohistochemistry)

Detection Rate: 95-98% bilateral detection [27]

False Negative Rate: < 5%

Advantage: If SLN negative, full lymphadenectomy avoided → lower lymphoedema risk (5% vs 20% with full dissection).

Pelvic Exenteration

Indications:

• Central pelvic recurrence (post-radiotherapy) with no distant metastases
• Stage IVA (bladder/rectal invasion) in highly selected cases
• No pelvic sidewall involvement (must be resectable)

Types:

• Anterior exenteration: Uterus + bladder + anterior vagina (urinary diversion)
• Posterior exenteration: Uterus + rectum + posterior vagina (colostomy)
• Total exenteration: Uterus + bladder + rectum + vagina (urinary + bowel diversion)

Outcomes:

• 5-year survival: 30-50% (selected patients)
• Morbidity: High (fistulae, sepsis, bowel complications)
• Quality of life: Significantly impacted (stomas, sexual dysfunction)

Reserved for young, fit patients with isolated central recurrence and no other options.

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Chemoradiotherapy

Indications:

• Stage IB3–IVA (locally advanced disease)
• Stage IB2 (alternative to surgery; equivalent outcomes)
• Node-positive disease (any stage → IIIC)

Concurrent chemoradiotherapy (CRT) is the gold standard for locally advanced cervical cancer, achieving superior survival compared to radiotherapy alone. [28]

Components of Chemoradiotherapy

1. External Beam Radiotherapy (EBRT)

• Dose: 45-50 Gy in 25-28 fractions (over 5-6 weeks)

• Target Volume:

  • Primary tumour (cervix, uterus, upper vagina)
  • Parametrium and pelvic sidewalls
  • Pelvic lymph nodes (external iliac, internal iliac, obturator, common iliac, presacral)
  • Para-aortic nodes (if Stage IIIC2—"extended-field RT")

• Technique: Intensity-Modulated Radiotherapy (IMRT) or 3D Conformal RT

  • IMRT reduces bowel/bladder dose → lower toxicity

2. Concurrent Chemotherapy

• Cisplatin 40 mg/m² IV weekly × 5-6 cycles (during EBRT)
• Mechanism: Cisplatin acts as a radiosensitizer, enhancing tumour cell kill
• Survival Benefit: 6-8% absolute improvement in 5-year survival (vs RT alone) [28]

3. Brachytherapy (Intracavitary Radiotherapy)

• Timing: After completion of EBRT (weeks 6-8)

• Technique:

  • Applicator (tandem and ovoids or ring) placed into uterus and vaginal fornices
  • "High-dose-rate (HDR) brachytherapy: Iridium-192 source delivers radiation from inside"
  • "Image-guided brachytherapy (IGBT): MRI-based planning for precise dose delivery"

• Dose: 28-30 Gy in 4-5 fractions (to Point A—2cm lateral and 2cm superior to external os)

• Purpose: Delivers high dose to central tumour while sparing bladder/rectum

Total Treatment Time: Should be completed within 7-8 weeks (prolonged treatment → worse outcomes) [29]

Exam Detail: Brachytherapy Rationale:

Brachytherapy is essential in cervical cancer chemoradiotherapy. EBRT alone cannot deliver sufficient dose to the central tumour without exceeding tolerance of bladder/rectum. Brachytherapy allows:

• High central dose (80-90 Gy total to tumour)
• Rapid dose fall-off (inverse square law) → sparing of adjacent organs
• Superior local control: 90% vs 60% (EBRT alone)

Patients who cannot receive brachytherapy (anatomy, pain, refusal) have significantly worse outcomes. [30]

Toxicity of Chemoradiotherapy

Acute (During Treatment):

• Gastrointestinal: Diarrhoea (70%), nausea, proctitis, tenesmus
• Genitourinary: Dysuria, urinary frequency, cystitis
• Haematological: Neutropenia, thrombocytopenia (cisplatin)
• Dermatological: Perineal skin desquamation
• Fatigue: Universal

Late (Months to Years):

Clinical Pearl: Vaginal Dilators After Chemoradiotherapy:

All patients undergoing pelvic radiotherapy should be counselled on vaginal dilator use to prevent stenosis. Stenosis causes:

• Dyspareunia (pain during sex)
• Inability to perform speculum examination (limits surveillance)
• Psychological distress

Regimen:

• Dilators 3 times weekly (10 minutes per session)
• Start 4-6 weeks post-treatment (once acute inflammation settles)
• Continue lifelong
• Use lubricant (aqueous gel, not petroleum-based)
• Consider vaginal estrogen (if post-menopausal)

Compliance is poor (50% adherence). Counselling, written information, and follow-up support improve outcomes.

---

Systemic Therapy

Metastatic Disease (Stage IVB)

First-Line Chemotherapy:

• Carboplatin/Cisplatin + Paclitaxel (doublet chemotherapy)
• + Bevacizumab (anti-VEGF monoclonal antibody)

Landmark GOG 240 Trial (2014):

• Addition of bevacizumab to chemotherapy improved:
  • "Median overall survival: 17.0 vs 13.3 months"
  • "Progression-free survival: 8.2 vs 6.0 months"
• Toxicity: Increased hypertension, thromboembolic events, GI perforation (2%)
• Now standard of care for metastatic cervical cancer [31]

Second-Line Chemotherapy:

• Topotecan, Gemcitabine, or Pemetrexed (limited efficacy)

Immunotherapy

Pembrolizumab (anti-PD-1 antibody):

• FDA-approved for recurrent/metastatic cervical cancer with PD-L1 expression (CPS ≥1)
• KEYNOTE-158 Trial: 14.3% response rate in PD-L1+ tumours [32]
• KEYNOTE-826 Trial (2021): Pembrolizumab + chemotherapy (± bevacizumab) improved:
  • "Median overall survival: 24.4 vs 16.5 months"
  • Benefit greatest in PD-L1+ tumours (CPS ≥10)
• Emerging as first-line in combination therapy

Mechanism: PD-L1 expression in cervical cancer driven by chronic HPV infection → immune evasion. PD-1 blockade restores T-cell activity.

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9. Screening and Prevention

Primary Prevention: HPV Vaccination

Available Vaccines:

UK Vaccination Programme:

• Target: Girls and boys aged 12-13 (school-based)
• Schedule: 2 doses (0 and 6-24 months) if vaccinated < 15 years; 3 doses if ≥15 years
• Coverage: 87% (1 dose), 77% (2 doses) in 2020 cohort [33]
• Boys included (2019): Reduces HPV transmission; prevents HPV-related cancers (anal, oropharyngeal)

Real-World Impact:

Exam Detail: MRCOG Viva: "Does HPV vaccination eliminate the need for cervical screening?"

Answer: No. While HPV vaccination is highly effective, screening remains essential because:

1. Vaccines do not cover all oncogenic HPV types (10-20% of cancers caused by non-vaccine types)
2. Women vaccinated after sexual debut may already have HPV infection (vaccine is prophylactic, not therapeutic)
3. Vaccination coverage is not 100% (10-20% of women unvaccinated or incomplete course)
4. Long-term efficacy data beyond 15 years still emerging
5. Adenocarcinoma rates (associated with HPV-18) remain significant despite vaccination

Therefore, vaccinated women still require screening (UK: ages 25-64), though screening intervals may be extended in future as cohort data mature.

Secondary Prevention: Cervical Screening

UK NHS Cervical Screening Programme

Target Population: Women aged 25-64

HPV Primary Screening (Introduced 2019):

┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                    HPV PRIMARY SCREENING PATHWAY                         │
├──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│                                                                          │
│   Sample Taken (Self-sampling or clinician)                             │
│                              ↓                                           │
│   ┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐      │
│   │  HPV TEST (First-line)                                       │      │
│   │  • High-risk HPV DNA/RNA detection                           │      │
│   │  • Types: 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 68 │      │
│   └──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘      │
│                              ↓                                           │
│             ┌────────────────┴────────────────┐                         │
│             ↓                                  ↓                         │
│   ┌─────────────────────┐         ┌─────────────────────────────┐      │
│   │  HPV NEGATIVE       │         │  HPV POSITIVE                │      │
│   │  (90% of samples)   │         │  (10% of samples)            │      │
│   └─────────────────────┘         └─────────────────────────────┘      │
│             ↓                                  ↓                         │
│   Routine Recall (3-5yr)          ┌─────────────────────────────┐      │
│                                   │  REFLEX CYTOLOGY             │      │
│                                   │  (Same sample)               │      │
│                                   └─────────────────────────────┘      │
│                                                ↓                         │
│                         ┌──────────────────────┴────────────────┐       │
│                         ↓                                        ↓       │
│              ┌──────────────────────┐              ┌──────────────────┐ │
│              │  CYTOLOGY NORMAL     │              │  ABNORMAL CYTOLOGY│ │
│              │  (HPV+ but no        │              │  (Dyskaryosis)   │ │
│              │   dyskaryosis)       │              │                  │ │
│              └──────────────────────┘              └──────────────────┘ │
│                         ↓                                        ↓       │
│              Repeat HPV test @12mo         URGENT COLPOSCOPY REFERRAL   │
│              (If persistent HPV+ → colpo)  (2-week-wait if high-grade)  │
│                                                                          │
└──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

Advantages of HPV Primary Screening:

1. Higher sensitivity for CIN3+: 95% (vs 55% for cytology alone) [37]
2. Earlier detection of high-risk individuals
3. Longer screening intervals for HPV-negative women (lower risk)
4. Self-sampling possible (increases uptake in hard-to-reach groups)

Cytology Terminology (Bethesda System):

Clinical Pearl: Who Should NOT Be Screened?

1. Women < 25 years:

   • High HPV prevalence (40-50%) but low cancer risk (transient infections)
   • Screening causes overtreatment (unnecessary colposcopy/LLETZ)
   • CIN regresses spontaneously in young women

2. Women who have never been sexually active:

   • Negligible cervical cancer risk (no HPV exposure)

3. Post-hysterectomy for benign disease:

   • If cervix removed and no history of CIN3, no screening needed
   • Exception: If hysterectomy for cervical cancer/CIN3, continue vault cytology for 10 years

4. Immunocompromised women (HIV, transplant):

   • More frequent screening (annual) from HIV diagnosis
   • Higher risk of rapid CIN progression

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10. Prognosis

Survival by Stage

Prognostic Factors:

Lymph Node Involvement: Single most important prognostic factor. 5-year survival drops from 85-90% (N0) to 50-60% (N1). [38]

Recurrence

Median Time to Recurrence: 7-12 months (80% within 2 years)

Surveillance:

• Physical exam + speculum: Every 3 months (years 1-2), every 6 months (years 3-5), annually thereafter
• Imaging: Not routine; only if symptoms or exam findings
• SCC-Ag/CA-125: May detect recurrence 3-6 months before symptoms (controversial utility)

Exam Detail: MRCOG Viva: "What factors predict the need for adjuvant therapy after radical hysterectomy?"

Sedlis Criteria (Intermediate Risk): If ≥2 of the following:

• LVSI present
• Deep stromal invasion (outer 1/3)
• Large tumour size (≥4cm)

→ Adjuvant radiotherapy improves progression-free survival. [39]

High-Risk Features (require adjuvant chemoradiotherapy):

• Positive lymph nodes
• Positive surgical margins
• Parametrial invasion

Implication: Triple-modality treatment (surgery + chemo + radiotherapy) has high morbidity (fistulae, bowel toxicity). Therefore, patients with high-risk features should receive primary chemoradiotherapy (not surgery).

---

11. Complications

Disease Complications

Treatment Complications

Radical Hysterectomy:

Chemoradiotherapy: (See Toxicity section above)

---

12. Special Scenarios

Cervical Cancer in Pregnancy

Incidence: 1-3 per 10,000 pregnancies (most common gynae cancer in pregnancy)

Diagnosis:

• Colposcopy is safe in pregnancy
• Biopsy of suspicious lesions (punch biopsy; avoid cone biopsy → haemorrhage, miscarriage)
• Cone biopsy only if invasive cancer suspected and diagnosis uncertain
• MRI (without gadolinium) for staging (safe in pregnancy)

Management Principles:

Mode of Delivery:

• Cesarean section preferred for invasive cancer (avoid cervical trauma, tumour dissemination)
• Vaginal delivery acceptable for CIN (not invasive)

Clinical Pearl: Cervical Cancer in Pregnancy Counselling:

This is an emotionally devastating diagnosis. Key counselling points:

1. Early pregnancy (< 20 weeks): Termination + immediate treatment offers best maternal outcomes
2. Late pregnancy (≥32 weeks): Delay of 4-8 weeks has minimal impact on prognosis for early-stage disease; allows fetal maturity
3. Locally advanced disease: Delay is not safe; immediate treatment required
4. Prognosis: Stage-for-stage, prognosis is equivalent to non-pregnant women
5. Future fertility: Radical hysterectomy precludes future pregnancy; trachelectomy not appropriate in pregnancy

Multidisciplinary team (gynaecological oncology, maternal-fetal medicine, neonatology, psychology) is essential.

Cervical Cancer in Immunocompromised Women

HIV-Positive Women:

• 6-fold increased risk of cervical cancer (AIDS-defining illness)
• More aggressive disease (younger age, advanced stage at diagnosis)
• Poorer outcomes if CD4 < 200 cells/μL
• Management: Same as HIV-negative women; ensure viral suppression (ART) during treatment
• Screening: Annual cytology from HIV diagnosis (vs 3-yearly in general population)

Solid Organ Transplant Recipients:

• 5-fold increased risk (chronic immunosuppression)
• Earlier onset (younger age at diagnosis)
• Management: Balance cancer treatment with immunosuppression (risk of graft rejection if immunosuppression reduced)

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13. Key Guidelines and Evidence

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14. Examination Focus

MRCOG Viva Scenarios

Scenario 1: Abnormal Cytology Management

Examiner: "A 32-year-old woman has HPV-positive high-grade dyskaryosis on screening. Colposcopy shows a small acetowhite area. Biopsy confirms CIN 3. She has completed her family. How do you manage her?"

Model Answer: "This patient has CIN 3 (high-grade dysplasia), a pre-malignant condition. Management is large loop excision of the transformation zone (LLETZ) under local anaesthetic (colposcopy clinic setting).

LLETZ:

• Excises the entire transformation zone in one piece (diagnostic + therapeutic)
• Allows histological assessment of margins and exclusion of invasive disease
• Success rate: 95% (complete excision with clear margins)

Follow-up:

• Test of cure at 6 months (HPV test + cytology)
• If negative → return to routine screening
• If positive or incomplete excision → repeat colposcopy ± further treatment

Counselling:

• Risk of cervical incompetence (miscarriage, preterm delivery) in future pregnancies: ~1.5-2× increased risk (small absolute increase)
• Risk of recurrence: 5-10% (higher if margins positive or persistent HPV)
• Does not require hysterectomy (even though family complete)—LLETZ is curative in 95%

Hysterectomy indications for CIN 3:

• Recurrent CIN 3 despite treatment
• Inability to adequately visualize transformation zone
• Patient preference (after extensive counselling)
• Concurrent indication (e.g., menorrhagia unresponsive to medical management)"

---

Scenario 2: LACC Trial Impact

Examiner: "What is the significance of the LACC trial for cervical cancer surgery?"

Model Answer: (See LACC Trial section above)

---

Scenario 3: Fertility-Sparing Surgery

Examiner: "A 28-year-old nulliparous woman has a 1.5cm Stage IB1 squamous cell carcinoma. She wishes to preserve fertility. What are her options?"

Model Answer: "She is a candidate for radical trachelectomy (fertility-sparing surgery).

Criteria:

• Age < 40 with strong fertility desire ✓
• Stage IA2–IB1, tumour < 2cm ✓
• Squamous or adenocarcinoma (not neuroendocrine) ✓
• No LVSI (requires confirmation on final histology)
• No lymph node involvement (requires lymphadenectomy or SLN)

Procedure:

• Radical trachelectomy (removal of cervix + upper vagina + parametrium)
• Pelvic lymphadenectomy or sentinel lymph node biopsy
• Permanent cerclage placed
• Uterus sutured to vaginal cuff

Outcomes:

• 5-year survival: 95% (equivalent to radical hysterectomy in selected cases)
• Pregnancy rate: 50-70%
• Live birth rate: 40-50%
• Miscarriage: 20-30% (higher than general population)
• Preterm delivery: 30-40%
• Delivery: Cesarean section only (no cervix)

Counselling:

• Oncological risk: 5-10% recurrence (vs 5% for radical hysterectomy)
• Obstetric risks: Miscarriage, preterm delivery, cervical insufficiency
• Surveillance: Lifelong annual follow-up
• Alternative: Radical hysterectomy + oocyte/embryo cryopreservation + surrogacy

Contraindications:

• LVSI present
• Lymph node involvement
• Tumour ≥2cm
• Inadequate residual cervical length

If final histology shows LVSI or positive nodes, radical hysterectomy (completion surgery) is required."

---

15. Patient/Layperson Explanation

What is cervical cancer?

"Cervical cancer is a cancer that grows in the cervix, which is the neck of the womb at the top of the vagina. It's almost always caused by a very common virus called HPV (Human Papillomavirus), which is passed on through sexual contact.

Most women who get HPV clear the virus naturally without any problems. In some women, the virus stays in the cervix for many years and slowly causes changes that can turn into cancer. The good news is that these changes happen very slowly—usually over 10-15 years—which means we can catch and treat them early through screening (the 'smear test')."

How is it prevented?

"There are two main ways to prevent cervical cancer:

1. HPV Vaccination (given to boys and girls aged 12-13):

   • Protects against the types of HPV that cause 90% of cervical cancers
   • Works best if given before you're sexually active
   • Does NOT treat HPV if you already have it—it's preventative only

2. Cervical Screening (ages 25-64):

   • A sample is taken from your cervix (quick, slightly uncomfortable)
   • The sample is tested for HPV first
   • If HPV is found, the sample is also checked for abnormal cells
   • If abnormal cells are found, you'll be referred for colposcopy (a closer look with a microscope)
   • Early changes (called CIN) can be easily treated before they turn into cancer

Screening saves lives: It has reduced cervical cancer deaths by 70% in the UK."

What are the symptoms?

"Early cervical cancer usually has no symptoms—that's why screening is so important. When symptoms do appear, the most common is:

• Bleeding after sex (this is the key warning sign)
• Bleeding between periods
• Bleeding after menopause
• Unusual vaginal discharge (watery, blood-stained, or with an unpleasant smell)

If you have any of these symptoms, see your GP urgently. Most of the time it's NOT cancer (there are many benign causes), but it's important to get it checked."

How is it treated?

"Treatment depends on how early the cancer is caught:

• Very early cancer (Stage 1): Surgery to remove the cervix and womb (hysterectomy). For young women who want children, it may be possible to remove just the cervix and keep the womb (called trachelectomy).

• More advanced cancer (Stage 2+): A combination of chemotherapy (tablets/injections) and radiotherapy (high-energy X-rays). This combination is very effective at shrinking and controlling the cancer.

• Advanced cancer with spread: Chemotherapy and newer treatments (immunotherapy) to slow the cancer and control symptoms."

What is the outlook?

"The outlook depends on the stage:

• Early-stage cervical cancer (caught on screening or with symptoms): Over 90% of women are cured.
• Advanced cancer: Harder to cure, but treatments can extend life and control symptoms.

The key message: Attend your cervical screening appointments. Screening can prevent cancer from developing in the first place."

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Document last updated: 2026-01-06 Evidence Level: Level I (Systematic reviews, RCTs, international guidelines) Citations: 40 PubMed-indexed references