General Practice
Browse 274 topics in general practice.
Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
An Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA) represents a permanent, pathological, localised dilatation of the abdominal aorta to a diameter of ≥3.0 cm (or exceeding 50% of the expected normal arterial diameter). This...
Absence Seizures (Paediatric)
Absence seizures are generalized onset non-motor seizures characterized by sudden, brief lapses in consciousness (typically 5–20 seconds) without loss of postural tone. They are the hallmark of Childhood Absence...
Acne Vulgaris
While often dismissed as a "rite of passage," acne carries a significant psychological burden, with rates of depression and suicidal ideation comparable to chronic systemic diseases like epilepsy or diabetes....
Acromegaly
The condition is insidious, with a median delay in diagnosis of 7–10 years . During this period, patients develop significant comorbidities, including hypertension, diabetes mellitus, cardiomyopathy, and obstructive...
Acute Angle Closure Glaucoma
The rapid IOP spike (often 50-70 mmHg) leads to ischaemic damage to the optic nerve, retina, and corneal endothelium. Treatment is a time-critical hierarchy: immediate medical reduction of IOP followed by definitive...
Acute Asthma Exacerbation
In the United Kingdom, asthma affects approximately 5.4 million people, leading to roughly 75,000 emergency hospital admissions and 1,400 deaths annually. A critical finding in the National Review of Asthma Deaths...
Acute Cholecystitis
The modern management of acute cholecystitis is defined by the Tokyo Guidelines (TG18) , which provide a standardized framework for diagnosis and severity grading. The historical "cool it off" approach with...
Acute Conjunctivitis
Viral conjunctivitis, primarily caused by Adenovirus , accounts for 65–90% of all infectious cases in adults. Bacterial conjunctivitis is less common in adults than in children but remains significant, often caused by...
Acute Constipation
Management follows a stepwise "Laxative Ladder" approach, prioritizing lifestyle modification and osmotic laxatives (Macrogol) over stimulants. Identifying Opioid-Induced Constipation (OIC) is critical in acute...
Acute Cough in Adults
Acute cough is defined as a cough lasting less than 3 weeks . It is one of the most common reasons for seeking medical advice, representing approximately 3% of all primary care consultations. The vast majority...
Acute Diarrhoea and Gastroenteritis
Acute diarrhoea is defined as the passage of three or more loose or watery stools per day (or more frequent than normal for the individual) lasting less than 14 days . It is a leading cause of outpatient visits and...
Acute Gastritis and Gastropathy
The primary aetiologies include Helicobacter pylori infection, Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs), alcohol, and severe physiological stress (e.g., in ICU). The Maastricht VI/Florence Consensus (2022)...
Acute Gout in Adults
Acute gout is an intensely painful, inflammatory monoarthritis caused by the deposition of monosodium urate (MSU) crystals within joints and soft tissues. It is the most common form of inflammatory arthritis in men,...
Acute Headache in Adults
Acute headache is one of the most common presentations in emergency departments, representing 2–4% of all visits. The primary clinical challenge is to distinguish common, benign primary headaches (migraine,...
Acute Heart Failure
The clinical presentation is heterogenous but typically involves signs of fluid overload (congestion) and, in more severe cases, reduced cardiac output (peripheral hypoperfusion). Management is prioritized into three...
Acute HIV Infection & Seroconversion
Acute HIV infection, also known as Primary HIV Infection or Acute Retroviral Syndrome (ARS), represents the period immediately following HIV acquisition until the development of a stable "viral set point." It...
Acute Ischaemic Stroke
Comprehensive Gold Standard guide to acute ischaemic stroke diagnosis and management, including thrombolysis, thrombectomy, and secondary prevention.
Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)
The diagnosis is established using the KDIGO (2012) criteria , which defines AKI as a rise in serum creatinine of ≥26.5 µmol/L within 48 hours or a 1.5-fold increase from baseline. Management is focused on identifying...
Acute Low Back Pain
However, the critical clinical challenge lies in identifying the 5-15% of patients with potentially serious underlying pathology—collectively termed "red flag" conditions—including cauda equina syndrome, malignancy,...
Acute Multiple Sclerosis Relapse
An acute multiple sclerosis (MS) relapse, also termed exacerbation or attack, represents a clinical manifestation of new... MRCP exam preparation.
Acute Nephritic Syndrome
Acute Nephritic Syndrome is a clinical constellation resulting from inflammatory injury to the glomerulus. It is charact... MRCP exam preparation.
Acute Oesophagitis
Acute oesophagitis represents sudden-onset inflammation of the oesophageal mucosa, most commonly secondary to gastro-oes... MRCP exam preparation.
Acute Otitis Media (Child)
Acute Otitis Media (AOM) is an acute bacterial or viral infection of the middle ear , representing one of the most common childhood infections and the leading cause of antibiotic prescriptions in children ....
Acute Pericarditis
Acute pericarditis is defined as inflammation of the pericardial sac, the double-layered fibroserous membrane that envel... MRCP exam preparation.
Acute Severe Asthma in Adults
Acute severe asthma is a medical emergency characterised by progressive bronchospasm, airway inflammation, and mucus hyp... MRCP exam preparation.
Acute Sinusitis (Adult)
Acute rhinosinusitis (ARS) is inflammation of the paranasal sinuses and nasal cavity lasting less than 12 weeks, most commonly following a viral upper respiratory tract infection (URI). The condition represents a...
Acute Urinary Retention
Acute urinary retention (AUR) is the sudden and painful inability to pass urine despite a full bladder, representing a u... MRCS exam preparation.
Acute-on-Chronic Liver Failure (ACLF)
Key Facts Incidence : Occurs in 25–35% of patients hospitalized for acute decompensation of cirrhosis. Mortality : 28-day mortality ranges from 23% (Grade 1) to 75% (Grade 3). Pathophysiology : Massive systemic...
Addison's Disease (Primary Adrenal Insufficiency)
Addison's disease is primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) caused by destruction or dysfunction of the adrenal cortex, res... MRCP exam preparation.
Adenomyosis
The condition predominantly affects multiparous women in their late reproductive years (40-50 years) , though increasing recognition through advanced imaging has identified cases in younger women and nulliparous...
Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Adult ADHD is a persistent neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by developmentally inappropriate levels of inattent... MRCPsych exam preparation.
Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD)
Dry AMD (Geographic Atrophy) represents 85-90% of cases and is characterised by drusen (extracellular deposits between the retinal pigment epithelium and Bruch's membrane) and progressive retinal pigment epithelium...
Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD)
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to age-related macular degeneration, covering pathophysiology, genetics, classification, anti-VEGF therapy, and the latest evidence from AREDS2 and landmark trials.
Alcohol-Related Liver Disease (ALD)
Alcohol-Related Liver Disease (ALD) encompasses the full spectrum of hepatic injury caused by chronic excessive alcohol ... MRCP exam preparation.
Alopecia Areata (Adult)
Alopecia areata (AA) is a common, T-cell mediated autoimmune disorder characterised by non-scarring hair loss manifesting as well-demarcated, round or oval patches of complete alopecia. The condition affects...
Alzheimer's Disease
Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia, accounting for 60-80% of all cases worldwide. It is a pro... MRCP, PLAB exam preparation.
Anal Fissure
An anal fissure is a longitudinal tear in the squamous epithelium (anoderm) of the anal canal, extending from the dentat... FRCS exam preparation.
Ankle Sprain
The acute lateral ankle sprain is the single most common musculoskeletal injury in the active population, accounting for approximately 2 million injuries annually in the United States alone. It involves stretching or...
Anorexia Nervosa (Adult)
Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a severe psychiatric disorder characterized by persistent restriction of energy intake leading to significantly low body weight (BMI less than 17.5 kg/m² in adults), an intense fear of gaining...
Anterior Uveitis
Anterior uveitis (iritis/iridocyclitis) is inflammation of the iris and ciliary body, presenting as a painful red eye wi... MRCP, FRCS Ophth exam preparation.
Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD)
ASPD is distinguished from other personality disorders by its consistent pattern of antisocial behaviour beginning in childhood or early adolescence, though formal diagnosis cannot be made before age 18 years. The...
Anxiety Disorders in Adults: Comprehensive Clinical Management
Anxiety disorders represent the most prevalent class of mental disorders worldwide, characterized by excessive fear, anx... MRCP, MRCPsych exam preparation.
Atopic Eczema
The underlying pathophysiology involves a complex interplay of epidermal barrier dysfunction (commonly associated with filaggrin mutations), type 2 immune dysregulation (Th2-predominant response with IL-4, IL-13,...
Atopic Eczema (Adult)
Atopic eczema (atopic dermatitis, AD) is a chronic, relapsing inflammatory skin condition characterised by intense pruritus, xerosis, and eczematous lesions with age-dependent distribution patterns. It affects 15-20%...
Atrial Fibrillation in Adults
Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a supraventricular tachyarrhythmia characterized by uncoordinated atrial electrical activati... MRCP, PLAB exam preparation.
Autism Spectrum Disorder in Adults
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in adults represents a lifelong neurodevelopmental condition characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction coupled with restricted, repetitive patterns of...
Autoimmune Polyglandular Syndrome (APS)
Autoimmune Polyglandular Syndromes (APS), also referred to as Autoimmune Polyendocrine Syndromes (APS) or Polyglandular ... MRCP exam preparation.
Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD)
ADPKD is a Systemic Disease with extrarenal manifestations including Hepatic Cysts (Most Common) , Intracranial Aneurysms (5-10%) , Cardiac Valve Abnormalities , and Colonic Diverticulae . Complications include...
Bacterial Vaginosis
While not strictly classified as a Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI), BV is sexually associated, with increased prevalence among women with new or multiple sexual partners, and particularly high concordance among...
Baker's Cyst (Popliteal Cyst)
A Baker's cyst (popliteal cyst) is a fluid-filled synovial cyst that forms in the popliteal fossa, typically as a distension of the gastrocnemius-semimembranosus bursa. It is almost always secondary to intra-articular...
Balanitis
Key Facts Prevalence : 3% of boys; 11% of adult men; 12-14% of men attending GUM clinics Most common causes : Candida albicans (30-35%), poor hygiene/irritant dermatitis (25-30%), bacterial (15-20%), dermatoses...
Basal Cell Carcinoma
While BCC has an exceptionally low metastatic rate (less than 0.1%), it remains a significant clinical challenge due to its high incidence, potential for local invasion and tissue destruction, and substantial...
Behavioural and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia (BPSD)
The cornerstone of BPSD management is the systematic identification and treatment of reversible underlying causes , particularly pain, infection (especially urinary tract infections and pneumonia), constipation,...
Benign Breast Disease
Benign Breast Disease encompasses a heterogeneous spectrum of non-malignant conditions affecting the breast, accounting ... MRCS, MRCOG exam preparation.
Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV)
Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV) is the most common cause of peripheral vertigo, accounting for approximately... MRCP exam preparation.
Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)
The pathophysiology involves both static and dynamic components: the static component arises from physical urethral compression by hyperplastic tissue, while the dynamic component reflects increased smooth muscle tone...
Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)
The clinical cascade involves four distinct but related entities: BPH (Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia): Histological diagnosis - cellular proliferation BPE (Benign Prostatic Enlargement): Anatomical diagnosis -...
Bipolar Affective Disorder
The disorder typically manifests in late adolescence or early adulthood, with a mean age of onset between 20-25 years. BPAD carries substantial morbidity and mortality, with standardised mortality ratios approximately...
Blepharitis (Adult)
Blepharitis is a chronic inflammatory condition affecting the eyelid margins, representing one of the most common causes... FRCOphth exam preparation.
Breaking Bad News (SPIKES)
Breaking bad news is one of the most challenging and important communication tasks in clinical medicine. It refers to the process of conveying information that adversely and seriously affects an individual's view of...
Bulimia Nervosa (BN) - Adult
Bulimia Nervosa (BN) is a severe eating disorder characterised by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by inappro... MRCPsych exam preparation.
Bullous Pemphigoid
Key Facts Epidemiology : Most common autoimmune blistering disease; incidence 6-43 per million/year globally, increasing over past 3 decades Mean age of onset : 75-80 years; rare before 60 years Target antigens :...
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) - Adult
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a lifesaving technique combining chest compressions and rescue ventilations to maintain circulatory flow and oxygenation during cardiac arrest. High-quality CPR is the...
Cataracts
A cataract is an opacification of the crystalline lens of the eye, leading to progressive visual impairment. It represen... FRCOphth, Medical Finals exam prepar
Cellulitis and Erysipelas
Cellulitis is a common, spreading bacterial infection of the deep dermis and subcutaneous tissue, typically presenting with localised heat, redness (erythema), swelling (oedema), and pain. Erysipelas is a superficial...
Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia
CIN is typically asymptomatic and detected through organized cervical screening programmes using HPV testing and/or cervical cytology. The introduction of HPV-based primary screening has significantly improved...
Chickenpox (Varicella)
Chickenpox (varicella) is a highly contagious primary infection caused by varicella-zoster virus (VZV), a member of the ... MRCPCH, RCPCH Progress Test exam pre
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS)
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome diagnosis and management including IOM/CDC criteria, post-exertional malaise, severity classification, and energy management...
Chronic Heart Failure
Historically viewed as a "pump failure" problem, it is now understood as a neurohormonal malignancy . Maladaptive activation of the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) and Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)...
Chronic Heart Failure
Heart failure (HF) is a complex clinical syndrome resulting from any structural or functional cardiac disorder that impairs the ability of the ventricle to fill with or eject blood. It represents a major and growing...
Chronic Kidney Disease
It is a silent killer. Most patients are asymptomatic until advanced stages (eGFR less than 15). However, even mild CKD is a potent risk factor for Cardiovascular Disease (Section 9). Patients are far more likely to...
Chronic Limb Ischaemia (Peripheral Arterial Disease)
Chronic limb ischaemia represents the spectrum of peripheral arterial disease (PAD) affecting the lower extremities, ranging from asymptomatic disease through intermittent claudication to critical limb-threatening...
Chronic Liver Disease and Cirrhosis
Chronic Liver Disease (CLD) represents a spectrum of progressive liver injury and fibrosis, culminating in Cirrhosis . Cirrhosis is defined histologically as diffuse hepatic fibrosis with the formation of regenerative...
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) in Adults
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a common, preventable, and treatable heterogeneous lung condition charac... MRCP, USMLE, FRACP exam preparation.
Community Acquired Pneumonia
Community Acquired Pneumonia (CAP) is an acute infection of the lung parenchyma acquired outside of the hospital setting... MRCP, USMLE exam preparation.
Conn's Syndrome (Primary Hyperaldosteronism)
Primary Hyperaldosteronism (PA) is the autonomous hypersecretion of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex (zona glomerulosa), leading to suppression of renin. It represents the most common cause of secondary...
Conn's Syndrome (Primary Hyperaldosteronism)
Conn's syndrome, or primary aldosteronism (PA), represents the most common cause of secondary hypertension and potentially curable form of hypertension. First described by Jerome Conn in 1955, it is characterised by...
Constipation (Adult)
Constipation is a highly prevalent gastrointestinal disorder characterised by infrequent bowel movements, difficulty passing stools, or a sensation of incomplete evacuation. It affects approximately 16% of adults...
Costochondritis
The pathognomonic feature is reproducible, localized tenderness on palpation of the affected costochondral junctions, most frequently involving the 2nd to 5th ribs. Unlike cardiac pain, costochondritis is typically...
COVID-19
COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019) is a systemic viral illness caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute... MRCP, USMLE exam preparation.
Cryotherapy (Liquid Nitrogen Treatment)
Cryotherapy is one of the most commonly performed dermatological procedures worldwide, utilizing extreme cold—most frequently liquid nitrogen at -196°C—to selectively destroy abnormal or unwanted tissue through...
Crystal Arthropathies (Gout & CPPD)
Crystal arthropathies represent a group of inflammatory joint diseases caused by the deposition of crystals within synovial fluid and periarticular tissues. The two principal conditions in this category are gout...
De Quervain's Tenosynovitis
The condition is characterized by pain and tenderness over the radial styloid, aggravated by thumb and wrist movements. It classically affects new mothers (hence "Mother's Thumb" or "Baby Wrist") due to repetitive...
Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT) - Adult
Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT) is the formation of a blood clot (thrombus) within the deep venous system, most commonly affe... MRCP exam preparation.
Dementia
Diagnosis requires comprehensive assessment including cognitive testing (MMSE, MoCA, ACE-III), exclusion of reversible causes (B12 deficiency, hypothyroidism, normal pressure hydrocephalus, depression), and...
Dermatofibroma
While dermatofibromas are entirely benign and require no treatment in the majority of cases, they serve as important clinical entities for several reasons: they are frequent causes of patient anxiety requiring...
Diabetic Nephropathy (Diabetic Kidney Disease)
Diabetic Nephropathy (DN), now comprehensively termed Diabetic Kidney Disease (DKD) , represents the leading cause of Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) and End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) globally, accounting for...
Diabetic Retinopathy
DR progresses through distinct stages: Non-Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy (NPDR) – subdivided into Background (R1), Pre-Proliferative (R2) – and Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy (PDR, R3) , characterised by...
Dilated Cardiomyopathy (DCM)
High-Yield Points: - Always exclude reversible causes: alcohol, thyroid disease, tachycardia-induced, peripartum, inflammatory, nutritional deficiencies - Genetic testing is recommended for all DCM patients without...
DOAC-Associated Bleeding in Adults
Direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) have revolutionized anticoagulation therapy, offering predictable pharmacokinetics wi... MRCP, FRCEM exam preparation.
Dyslipidaemia and Lipid Management
Dyslipidaemia encompasses a spectrum of lipid abnormalities characterized by elevated low-density lipoprotein cholestero... MRCP exam preparation.
Dyspepsia (Adult)
Dyspepsia is defined as epigastric pain or burning, postprandial fullness, or early satiation . It affects 10-40% of the global population , making it one of the most common reasons for gastroenterology consultations....
Eating Disorders in Adults
Eating disorders are serious, potentially life-threatening mental health conditions characterised by persistent disturba... MRCPsych exam preparation.
Emollients & Moisturisers
Emollients are medical moisturisers that form the cornerstone of therapy for all dry skin conditions including atopic de... MRCP(UK), MRCGP exam preparation.
Endometriosis
Common anatomical sites include the ovaries (where it forms blood-filled cysts termed "endometriomas" or "chocolate cysts"), the pouch of Douglas, uterosacral ligaments, rectovaginal septum, and pelvic peritoneum....
Epidermoid & Pilar Cysts
Epidermoid and pilar (trichilemmal) cysts are the most common cutaneous cysts encountered in clinical practice, often incorrectly termed "sebaceous cysts." This terminology is a misnomer because these cysts contain...
Epistaxis (Nosebleed)
Epistaxis (nosebleed) is bleeding from the nasal cavity, affecting up to 60% of the population at some point in their li... MRCS, MRCP exam preparation.
Erysipelas
Primary Pathogen : Group A Streptococcus ( Strep pyogenes ) - 80-90% of cases Secondary Pathogens : Group G/C Streptococcus ( S. dysgalactiae ) - increasingly recognized Anatomical Depth : Upper dermis and superficial...
Erythema Multiforme
Historically, EM was incorrectly grouped with Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) as part of a single disease spectrum. Current evidence firmly establishes EM as a distinct entity with...
Essential Tremor
Essential tremor (ET) is the most common movement disorder worldwide, with prevalence estimates ranging from 0.9% in the... MRCP exam preparation.
Factitious Disorder (Munchausen Syndrome)
Factitious Disorder is a complex psychiatric condition characterized by the intentional production, feigning, or exaggeration of physical or psychological symptoms with the primary motivation being to assume the "sick...
Fibroadenoma
Diagnosis requires triple assessment comprising clinical examination, imaging (ultrasound in women less than 40 years, mammography in older women), and tissue sampling via core needle biopsy. The majority of...
Fibromyalgia
Management is multidisciplinary and centres on patient education, graded aerobic exercise, and pharmacological interventions targeting central pain mechanisms (tricyclic antidepressants, serotonin-norepinephrine...
Focal Seizures (Partial Seizures)
Focal seizures originate from a localized area within one cerebral hemisphere, representing approximately 60% of all epilepsy cases. The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) 2017 classification replaced the...
Frozen Shoulder (Adhesive Capsulitis)
The hallmark pathological feature is capsular contracture with loss of the axillary recess , leading to global restriction of shoulder movement following a characteristic capsular pattern (External Rotation Abduction...
Gastric Cancer
The strongest modifiable risk factor is chronic infection with Helicobacter pylori , classified as a Group 1 carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Other significant risk factors include...
Gastro-Oesophageal Reflux Disease
Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) is defined as a condition that develops when reflux of gastric contents causes ... MRCP, USMLE exam preparation.
Gastro-Oesophageal Reflux Disease (GORD)
GORD represents one of the most common gastrointestinal disorders in Western populations, with significant impact on quality of life and healthcare costs. The condition exists on a spectrum from Non-Erosive Reflux...
Gender Dysphoria (Gender Incongruence)
Gender Dysphoria is the clinical distress caused by a discrepancy between a person's Gender Identity (internally experienced gender) and their Sex Assigned at Birth . The condition is characterized by marked...
Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
GAD affects approximately 5-6% of people over their lifetime, with a 12-month prevalence of 2-3%. It is the most common anxiety disorder in primary care and represents a significant burden due to its chronic,...
Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
GAD affects approximately 5-6% of the population during their lifetime, with a 2:1 female predominance . The condition typically begins in early adulthood (peak onset 30s-40s), though childhood and adolescent onset is...
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
The core pathology involves dysregulation of the amygdala-prefrontal cortex circuit, with deficits in GABAergic inhibition and Serotonin signaling. Patients live in a state of constant "Fight or Flight" arousal,...
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) is a pervasive, chronic mental health condition defined by excessive, uncontrollable ... MRCPsych exam preparation.
Genitourinary Syndrome of Menopause (GSM)
GSM encompasses vaginal, vulval, and urinary symptoms including vaginal dryness, dyspareunia, vulval irritation, recurre... MRCOG, DFSRH exam preparation.
Giardiasis
Transmission occurs primarily via the fecal-oral route through ingestion of infectious cysts in contaminated water, food, or via person-to-person contact. The infection is particularly prevalent among travelers to...
Golfer's Elbow (Medial Epicondylitis)
Medial Epicondylitis ("Golfer's Elbow") is a degenerative overuse tendinopathy affecting the Common Flexor Origin (CFO) at the medial epicondyle of the humerus. Despite its colloquial name, over 90% of cases are...
Greater Trochanteric Pain Syndrome (GTPS)
GTPS affects approximately 1.8-3.3 per 1000 patients annually, with a cumulative prevalence of 10-25% in the general adult population. The condition demonstrates a marked female predominance (female:male ratio of 4:1)...
Guillain-Barré Syndrome (Adult)
Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS) is an acute, post-infectious, immune-mediated polyneuropathy representing the most common ... MRCP exam preparation.
Gynaecomastia
Physiological gynaecomastia occurs at three life stages: Neonatal (transplacental maternal oestrogen exposure, resolves within weeks), Pubertal (transient oestrogen-androgen imbalance, affects 60% of boys aged 10-16...
Hallux Fracture
Fractures of the hallux (great toe) are common foot injuries resulting from direct trauma (dropping heavy objects), stubbing mechanisms (axial load), or hyperextension injuries. Unlike lesser toes, the hallux plays a...
Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease (Child)
Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease (HFMD) is a highly contagious viral illness predominantly affecting children under 5 years of age , characterised by the classical triad of painful oral ulcers , vesicular rash on hands...
Hashimoto's Thyroiditis
Comprehensive, evidence-based guide to Hashimoto's Thyroiditis covering molecular pathophysiology, autoantibody testing, Levothyroxine management, pregnancy considerations, and complications including thyroid lymphoma.
Head Lice (Paediatric)
Head lice infestation (Pediculosis Capitis) is caused by Pediculus humanus capitis , a small obligate ectoparasitic insect that lives exclusively on the human scalp and feeds on blood. Head lice are extremely common...
Health Anxiety (Illness Anxiety Disorder)
Health Anxiety, classified in DSM-5 as Illness Anxiety Disorder (IAD) or Somatic Symptom Disorder (SSD) depending on presentation, is a condition characterised by Preoccupation with Having or Acquiring a Serious,...
Hearing Loss in Adults
Hearing loss is one of the most prevalent chronic conditions affecting adults worldwide, with profound implications for quality of life, cognitive function, and social participation. Approximately 1.5 billion people...
Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction (HFpEF)
Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction (HFpEF) is a clinical syndrome characterised by symptoms and signs of hea... MRCP exam preparation.
Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction (HFrEF)
The pathophysiology involves initial myocardial injury (commonly from ischaemic heart disease in 60-70% of cases) followed by maladaptive neurohormonal activation, ventricular remodelling, and progressive cardiac...
Heat Stroke in Adults
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to the diagnosis and emergency management of heat stroke in adults, including pathophysiology, cooling methods, and multi-organ complications
Herpes Zoster (Shingles)
Herpes zoster (shingles) results from reactivation of latent varicella zoster virus (VZV) from dorsal root, cranial nerv... MRCP, PLAB exam preparation.
HIV & AIDS
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is a lentivirus belonging to the Retroviridae family that selectively infects and dep... MRCP exam preparation.
HIV Infection (Adult)
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is a lentivirus (subfamily of retroviruses) that targets the human immune system, specifically CD4+ T-lymphocytes (helper T cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells. Progressive...
Hodgkin Lymphoma
The disease exhibits a bimodal age distribution with peaks at 15-35 years (young adults) and 55 years (older adults). Patients typically present with painless lymphadenopathy , often cervical or supraclavicular, with...
Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) Protocols
Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT), also termed Menopausal Hormone Therapy (MHT) , involves the administration of systemic Oestrogen (with or without Progestogen ) to replace declining ovarian hormones in...
Hyperemesis Gravidarum
Hyperemesis Gravidarum (HG) is a severe form of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy (NVP) characterised by persistent intra... MRCOG, FRANZCOG exam preparation.
Hyperhidrosis
The condition is classified into: Primary (Idiopathic) Focal Hyperhidrosis : Localized excessive sweating without identifiable cause, typically affecting axillae, palms, soles, or craniofacial regions Secondary...
Hyperparathyroidism (Adult)
Hyperparathyroidism encompasses a spectrum of disorders characterised by excessive parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion, ... MRCP exam preparation.
Hypertensive Nephropathy
It is conventionally cited as the second most common cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) worldwide (after diabetic kidney disease), although the true contribution of hypertension as a primary cause versus a...
Hyperthyroidism in Adults
Hyperthyroidism is a clinical syndrome characterized by the excessive synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones (thyro... MRCP, USMLE exam preparation.
Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM)
Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a genetic cardiac disorder characterised by unexplained left ventricular hypertroph... MRCP exam preparation.
Hypoparathyroidism (Adult)
Hypoparathyroidism is a rare endocrine disorder characterized by insufficient secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH) from the parathyroid glands, resulting in hypocalcaemia and hyperphosphataemia . Unlike other...
Hypothyroidism in Adults
Hypothyroidism is a common clinical syndrome resulting from a deficiency of thyroid hormones, which leads to a generaliz... MRCP, USMLE exam preparation.
IgG4-Related Disease
IgG4-RD typically affects middle-aged to elderly men with a median age of 60 years and a male-to-female ratio of 2-3:1, though head and neck involvement shows equal sex distribution. The disease is characterised by...
Immune Thrombocytopenia (ITP)
A comprehensive guide to Immune Thrombocytopenia (ITP), covering diagnostic exclusion criteria, differentiation from TTP, and the management ladder (Steroids - IVIg - TPO-RAs - Splenectomy).
Impetigo (Child)
Impetigo is a highly contagious superficial bacterial skin infection that represents the most common bacterial skin infection in children worldwide , with peak incidence in 2-5 year olds . The condition is...
Infantile Seborrhoeic Dermatitis (Cradle Cap)
Infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis (ISD), commonly known as "cradle cap," is a benign, self-limiting inflammatory skin condition affecting infants primarily in the first 3 months of life. It presents characteristically...
Infectious Mononucleosis
Key Facts Causative Agent : Epstein-Barr virus (EBV/HHV-4), a double-stranded DNA gamma-herpesvirus. Incidence : 45-50 per 100,000 population annually in Western countries; peaks in adolescents aged 15-24. Incubation...
Infective Gastroenteritis
While the majority of adult cases in developed nations are viral (Norovirus) and self-limiting, bacterial gastroenteritis ( Campylobacter , Salmonella , E. coli ) presents a more severe clinical picture, often with...
Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) comprises two principal chronic, immune-mediated inflammatory disorders of the gastroin... MRCP, USMLE exam preparation.
Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) in Adults
Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) comprises a group of chronic, immune-mediated inflammatory conditions of the gastrointe... MRCP exam preparation.
Influenza (Flu)
Influenza is an acute viral respiratory infection caused by Influenza viruses A and B, representing one of the most sign... MRCP, FRACP exam preparation.
Ingrown Toenail
The condition affects predominantly the great toe (hallux), with the lateral nail edge involved in approximately 85% of cases. Without appropriate treatment, the natural history progresses through stages of increasing...
Insomnia
Insomnia is a sleep-wake disorder characterised by persistent difficulty with sleep initiation, maintenance, consolidati... MRCP, MRCPsych exam preparation.
Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Diagnosis is clinical, based on the Rome IV criteria, which require recurrent abdominal pain at least 1 day per week in the last 3 months, associated with two or more of: (1) related to defecation, (2) associated with...
Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
IBS is not a diagnosis of exclusion, but rather a positive clinical diagnosis based on symptom-based criteria (Rome IV) combined with judicious use of investigations to exclude alarm features. The pathophysiology is...
Labyrinthitis (Adult)
Labyrinthitis is acute inflammation of the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear, affecting both the vestibular apparatu... MRCP, FRCS ENT exam preparation.
Lateral Epicondylitis (Tennis Elbow)
Lateral epicondylitis, commonly known as "tennis elbow," is a degenerative tendinopathy affecting the common extensor origin at the lateral epicondyle of the humerus, most commonly involving the extensor carpi...
Lateral Epicondylitis (Tennis Elbow)
Lateral epicondylitis, colloquially termed "tennis elbow," represents the most common cause of lateral elbow pain in adults and constitutes a significant cause of occupational morbidity. The condition is characterised...
Leukaemia (Adult)
Leukaemia represents a heterogeneous group of clonal haematological malignancies characterised by the uncontrolled proliferation of abnormal white blood cells (WBCs) in the bone marrow and peripheral blood. These...
Lipoma
A lipoma is a benign mesenchymal tumour composed of mature adipose tissue, representing the most common soft tissue neoplasm in adults with an estimated prevalence of 1-2% in the general population. These tumours are...
Low Back Pain and Sciatica
Low Back Pain (LBP) is the leading cause of disability worldwide. 85% of cases are "Non-specific Mechanical LBP" where no specific anatomical cause (like cancer or infection) is found.
Lumbar Disc Herniation (Sciatica)
Lumbar Disc Herniation (LDH) is the displacement of intervertebral disc material—specifically the nucleus pulposus—beyon... FRCS, FRACS exam preparation.
Lyme Disease
A comprehensive evidence-based guide to Lyme Disease covering epidemiology, pathophysiology, the two-tier diagnostic testing protocol, stage-based management with antibiotic regimens, and complications including...
Lymphadenopathy
The generalist's challenge is to filter the "benign majority" from the "malignant minority". While less than 1% of primary care patients with lymphadenopathy have malignancy, this rises to 40-60% in specialist...
Lymphoma (Adult)
Lymphomas are a heterogeneous group of malignancies arising from lymphoid tissue, representing the fifth most common cancer in developed countries. They are broadly classified into Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and...
Major Depressive Disorder in Adults
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a common, serious, and potentially life-threatening psychiatric condition characteriz... MRCP, PLAB exam preparation.
Male Hypogonadism
Classic presentation involves reduced libido, erectile dysfunction, fatigue, and regression of secondary sexual characteristics. However, the clinical picture is highly variable depending on the age of onset...
Mallet Finger (Adult)
Mallet finger represents a disruption of the terminal extensor mechanism at the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint, resulting in loss of active DIP extension. The injury occurs when sudden forceful flexion is applied...
Mastitis (Lactational)
Lactational mastitis is an inflammatory condition of the breast tissue that occurs predominantly during breastfeeding, representing a clinical spectrum from non-infectious milk stasis (blocked duct) through infectious...
Medication Overuse Headache
The condition typically develops in patients with an underlying primary headache disorder (most commonly migraine or tension-type headache) who escalate their use of acute symptomatic medications beyond safe...
Menopause Management
A comprehensive guide to Menopause management, covering HRT prescribing algorithms (Uterus vs No Uterus), risks (VTE, Breast Cancer), and managing Premature Ovarian Insufficiency.
Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease (MASLD)
The global prevalence of MASLD is estimated at 25-30% of the general adult population, with significantly higher rates i... MRCP exam preparation.
Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease (MASLD)
Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease (MASLD), formerly known as Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (N... MRCP exam preparation.
Metabolic Syndrome
The unifying pathophysiological mechanism is Insulin Resistance , predominantly driven by excessive visceral adipose tissue accumulation. This creates a vicious cycle: adipose tissue dysfunction leads to ectopic fat...
Migraine in Adults: Comprehensive Clinical Management
Migraine is a chronic, episodic neurovascular disorder characterized by recurrent attacks of moderate-to-severe headache... MRCP exam preparation.
Molluscum Contagiosum (Child)
Molluscum contagiosum is a Common, Benign, Self-Limiting Viral Skin Infection caused by the Molluscum Contagiosum Virus (MCV) , a member of the Poxviridae family. It is characterised by Discrete, Dome-Shaped,...
Mumps (Child)
Mumps is an acute, highly contagious viral infection caused by the Mumps virus (genus Rubulavirus , family Paramyxoviridae ), characterised clinically by painful, bilateral parotid gland swelling (epidemic parotitis)....
Mycoplasma Pneumonia (Atypical Pneumonia)
Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a cell wall-deficient bacterium representing one of the smallest free-living organisms capable of self-replication. It is the most common cause of atypical pneumonia in children and young...
Nappy Rash
The key clinical distinction is between Irritant Dermatitis (which characteristically affects convex surfaces and spares the flexures ) and Candidal Dermatitis (which involves the deep flexures and presents with...
Nausea and Vomiting in Palliative Care
Nausea and vomiting are among the most distressing and debilitating symptoms in palliative care, affecting 40-70% of patients with advanced cancer and up to 60% of patients in the terminal phase. Effective management...
Nephritic Syndrome
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to Nephritic Syndrome in adults, covering the classic pentad of haematuria, hypertension, oliguria, oedema and proteinuria. Distinguishes IgA nephropathy from post-streptococcal GN,...
Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD / MASLD)
Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD), recently renamed Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease (MA... MRCP Part 2 exam preparation.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (Adult)
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a chronic, debilitating psychiatric condition characterised by the presence of obsessions (recurrent, intrusive, unwanted thoughts, images, or urges causing marked anxiety)...
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
The hallmark feature of OCD is that obsessions are ego-dystonic – experienced as inconsistent with the person's self-concept, unwanted, and distressing – which distinguishes them from delusions (which are...
Obstructive Sleep Apnoea (OSA)
The core pathology is a "Starling Resistor" failure: the negative pressure generated by the diaphragm overcomes the structural stability of the pharyngeal dilator muscles, causing the airway to suck closed like a wet...
Olecranon Bursitis (Adult)
Olecranon Bursitis is inflammation of the superficial subcutaneous bursa overlying the olecranon process at the posterior aspect of the elbow. It represents one of the most common superficial bursitides encountered in...
Osteoarthritis
It is a "Whole Joint Failure". The cardinal features are pain (mechanical), stiffness (short duration), and loss of function. It predominantly affects weight-bearing joints (Hips, Knees) and the hands (DIPs, CMC thumb).
Osteomalacia (Adult Rickets)
Osteomalacia is a metabolic bone disease characterised by defective mineralisation of the osteoid matrix in adults, resulting in the accumulation of unmineralised or inadequately mineralised bone. The term derives...
Otitis Media (AOM and OME)
Otitis Media encompasses a spectrum of inflammatory conditions affecting the middle ear cleft, representing one of the most common reasons for paediatric consultation and antibiotic prescription worldwide. The two...
Ovarian Cancer (Adult)
Ovarian cancer is the deadliest gynaecological malignancy and the fifth leading cause of cancer death in women in developed countries. Despite accounting for only 3% of all female cancers, it causes more deaths than...
Ovarian Cysts
Ovarian cysts are fluid-filled or semisolid structures within or on the surface of an ovary, representing one of the mos... MRCOG exam preparation.
Palliative Pain Management
Effective pain management is the cornerstone of palliative care, affecting 70-90% of patients with advanced cancer and requiring systematic, evidence-based approaches. The principles are guided by the WHO Analgesic...
Parkinson's Disease
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterised by the loss of dopaminergic neurons i... MRCP exam preparation.
Parkinson's Disease (Adult)
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the selective loss of dopaminergic... MRCP, USMLE exam preparation.
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) is an infection and inflammation of the upper female genital tract, encompassing the u... MRCOG, MRCS exam preparation.
Pelvic Organ Prolapse (POP)
The condition exists on a spectrum from asymptomatic anatomical findings to severe prolapse causing significant functional impairment and reduced quality of life. While not life-threatening in most cases, severe...
Peptic Ulcer Disease
Test-and-Treat Strategy : NICE recommends non-invasive H. pylori testing (UBT or stool antigen) followed by eradication therapy for patients less than 55 years without alarm features, avoiding endoscopy. This strategy...
Peptic Ulcer Disease in Adults
Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is a distinct break in the mucosal lining of the stomach (gastric ulcer) or the first portion... MRCP exam preparation.
Perianal Abscess and Fistula-in-Ano
This condition represents one of the most common anorectal emergencies encountered in surgical practice, with significant implications for patient quality of life and functional outcomes. The fundamental surgical...
Peripheral Neuropathy
The hallmark of successful management lies in accurate phenotyping : Is it Axonal or Demyelinating? (NCS/EMG distinguishes). Is it Symmetric or Asymmetric? (Systemic vs Local/Vasculitis). Is it Large Fiber or Small...
Perthes Disease (LCPD)
Legg-Calvé-Perthes Disease (LCPD) is an idiopathic Avascular Necrosis (AVN) of the developing femoral head in children, typically aged 4-8 years. The condition represents a self-limiting disorder characterized by...
Plantar Warts (Verrucae)
Plantar warts (verrucae plantares) are benign epithelial proliferations on the plantar surface of the feet caused by inf... MRCP, Primary Care exam preparation.
Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS)
Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS) is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age, affecting approxi... MRCOG exam preparation.
Polycythaemia Vera
PV represents the most common cause of primary erythrocytosis and is distinguished from secondary causes by the presence of the JAK2 V617F mutation in 95% of cases . The remaining cases harbour mutations in JAK2 exon...
Polymyalgia Rheumatica
The disease has a striking demographic profile: it is almost never seen in individuals under 50 years of age, with peak incidence occurring between 70-80 years. Women are affected approximately twice as frequently as...
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating psychiatric disorder that develops in susceptible individuals fo... MRCP, PLAB exam preparation.
Postnatal Depression (PND)
Postnatal depression (PND), also termed postpartum depression (PPD), is a non-psychotic depressive episode occurring wit... MRCOG, MRCPCH, MRCPsych exam prepara
Postpartum Mental Health
Perinatal mental health disorders represent a spectrum of psychiatric conditions occurring during pregnancy and the first year postpartum, ranging from the common, self-limiting Baby Blues to severe, life-threatening...
Pre-eclampsia
Key Facts: Definition : Hypertension ≥140/90 mmHg + proteinuria or end-organ dysfunction after 20 weeks Prevalence : 2-8% of pregnancies globally Incidence : 3-5% in developed countries, higher in developing countries...
Premature Ovarian Insufficiency (POI)
Premature Ovarian Insufficiency (POI), previously termed Premature Ovarian Failure (POF), is defined as the loss of norm... MRCOG, USMLE exam preparation.
Pressure Ulcers
The National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel (NPUAP) and European Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel (EPUAP) provide the gold standard for classification, prevention, and management.
Primary Hyperaldosteronism
First described by Jerome Conn in 1955 as a syndrome of hypertension, hypokalaemia, and adrenal adenoma, PA was initially considered rare. However, the introduction of the aldosterone-renin ratio (ARR) as a screening...
Primary Hyperparathyroidism
The condition is usually caused by a solitary parathyroid adenoma (80-85% of cases), though multigland hyperplasia (10-15%) and double adenomas (2-5%) also occur. Parathyroid carcinoma is rare, accounting for less...
Primary Open Angle Glaucoma
POAG is the leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide, affecting approximately 70 million people globally. The condition is aptly termed "The Silent Thief of Sight" because it typically remains asymptomatic...
Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Testing in Adults
Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) is a serine protease glycoprotein produced almost exclusively by prostatic epithelial cells. It functions physiologically to liquefy the seminal coagulum, but its clinical utility lies...
Psoriasis
Plaque psoriasis (psoriasis vulgaris) accounts for 80-90% of cases and follows a relapsing-remitting course with significant impact on quality of life. Management follows a stepwise approach: topical therapy (vitamin...
Pulled Elbow (Nursemaid's Elbow)
A Pulled Elbow (Radial Head Subluxation) is the most common upper limb injury in toddlers (1-4 years). It involves the Annular Ligament slipping proximally over the radial head and becoming entrapped in the...
Pulmonary Embolism
"Think PE in Unexplained Dyspnoea" : PE can present with isolated dyspnoea, pleuritic chest pain, syncope, or even just tachycardia. The classic triad of dyspnoea, chest pain, and haemoptysis occurs in less than 20%...
Pyogenic Granuloma
The cardinal clinical feature is a dome-shaped, glistening, friable nodule that bleeds disproportionately to the degree of trauma, often with a characteristic collarette of scale at the base. While the lesion appears...
Quinsy (Peritonsillar Abscess)
Quinsy, also known as Peritonsillar Abscess (PTA) , is a collection of pus in the peritonsillar space —the potential space located between the tonsillar capsule and the superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle. It is...
Rectal Prolapse
Full-thickness rectal prolapse predominantly affects elderly women (6:1 female:male ratio), with peak incidence in the 7th-8th decades. Key risk factors include chronic constipation with straining , multiparity...
Roseola Infantum
HHV-6 seroprevalence reaches 95% by age 2-3 years in most populations worldwide, establishing roseola as a near-universal childhood infection with lifelong viral latency following primary infection. The infection is...
Rotator Cuff Disorders
The pathophysiology is predominantly degenerative, arising from age-related tendon degeneration, vascular insufficiency, and repetitive microtrauma in the subacromial space. Clinical presentation typically includes...
Scabies
Nocturnal Itch Pearl : The characteristic nocturnal pruritus occurs because mites are more active in warm environments. Night-time scratching + web space involvement = think scabies.
Scarlet Fever
The condition manifests with pathognomonic clinical features including Strawberry Tongue (initially white-coated with erythematous papillae, later denuded and beefy-red), flushed cheeks with circumoral pallor ,...
Sciatica (Adult)
Sciatica is a syndrome characterized by radiating pain along the distribution of the sciatic nerve (L4-S3 dermatomes), typically extending from the lower back into the posterior thigh and leg, usually below the knee....
Scrotal Lumps
The diagnostic approach relies on systematic clinical examination incorporating three cardinal questions: (1) Can you get above the swelling? (2) Is the mass separate from the testis? (3) Does it transilluminate?...
Seborrhoeic Keratosis
Seborrhoeic Keratosis (SK) is the most common benign tumour of the skin, originating from keratinocytes in the stratum b... MRCP, MRCGP exam preparation.
Secondary Postpartum Haemorrhage
The condition poses unique clinical challenges: the postpartum uterus is soft and friable (increasing surgical perforation risk), diagnosis of RPOC by ultrasound is fraught with false positives (blood clots mimicking...
Sever's Disease
The condition was first described by James Warren Sever in 1912 and represents a distinct entity within the broader family of paediatric osteochondroses. Unlike traumatic injuries, Sever's disease develops gradually...
SIADH (Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH) - Adult
The Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone secretion (SIADH) is the most common cause of euvolaemic hyponatraemi... MRCP exam preparation.
Skin Biopsy Techniques
Skin biopsy is a fundamental diagnostic procedure in dermatology, primary care, and plastic surgery, used to obtain tiss... MRCS exam preparation.
Slapped Cheek Syndrome (Fifth Disease/Parvovirus B19)
Slapped Cheek Syndrome (Erythema Infectiosum), historically termed "Fifth Disease" as the fifth described childhood exanthem, is a common viral infection caused by Human Parvovirus B19 (B19V). This small,...
Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis (SCFE)
The pathophysiology involves mechanical overload of a weakened physis during the adolescent growth spurt , strongly associated with obesity ( 80% of patients), endocrine disorders (hypothyroidism, growth hormone...
Slipped Upper Femoral Epiphysis (SUFE)
Slipped Upper Femoral Epiphysis (SUFE), also known as Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis (SCFE), is a displacement of the... FRCS exam preparation.
Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)
Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD), also known as Social Phobia, is a chronic psychiatric condition characterised by marked a... MRCPsych exam preparation.
Spinal Stenosis
Lumbar Spinal Stenosis (LSS) is a degenerative narrowing of the spinal canal, lateral recess, or neural foramina, leadin... FRCS, FRACS exam preparation.
Splenomegaly
The spleen's unique anatomical position in the portal circulation and its role as a reticuloendothelial filter make it susceptible to enlargement via three primary mechanisms: congestion (e.g., cirrhosis),...
Stable Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a common, preventable, and treatable chronic respiratory condition characterised by persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation due to airway and/or alveolar...
Suicide Risk Assessment
The clinical approach to SRA has undergone a paradigm shift in the last decade, moving away from "risk prediction" (which has been shown to be mathematically impossible at the individual level) toward "risk...
Tension-Type Headache
Fact Value ------ ------- Definition Bilateral, non-pulsating, pressing/tightening headache of mild-moderate intensity Prevalence Lifetime 80%, 1-year 40-60% Peak Age 30-40 years Sex Ratio Female Male (Slight...
Testicular Cancer
The fundamental clinical distinction is between Seminomas (slow growing, radiosensitive, elderly men) and Non-Seminomatous GCTs (NSGCTs - aggressive, early metastasis, young men).
The Acute Abdomen
The "Acute Abdomen" is a clinical syndrome characterized by sudden, severe abdominal pain that typically develops over a period of hours and may require urgent surgical intervention. It is a working diagnosis that...
The Mental Capacity Act (MCA) 2005
The Mental Capacity Act 2005 (MCA) is the primary legislation in England and Wales governing decision-making for adults (aged 16+) who lack mental capacity. It provides a comprehensive statutory framework that...
The Mental Health Act (1983)
The Mental Health Act (MHA) 1983 (amended 2007) is the primary legislation in England and Wales allowing for the compuls... MRCPsych, MRCGP exam preparation.
Thyroid Nodules & Goitre
Thyroid nodules are discrete lesions within the thyroid gland that are palpably or radiologically distinct from surrounding thyroid parenchyma. They represent one of the most common endocrine disorders, with a...
Tinea Infections
The three principal genera of dermatophytes are Trichophyton , Microsporum , and Epidermophyton . Trichophyton rubrum accounts for 60-80% of all dermatophyte infections globally and is the most common cause of chronic...
Tinea Infections (Dermatophytosis)
Dermatophytosis (tinea infections) represents a group of superficial mycoses caused by keratinophilic fungi of the genera Trichophyton , Microsporum , and Epidermophyton . These organisms infect keratinized...
Tonsillitis
Tonsillitis is acute inflammation of the palatine tonsils, predominantly caused by viral or bacterial infection. It repr... MRCP, MRCGP exam preparation.
Topical Corticosteroids
Potency: Matching strength to the site and severity (e.g., Mild for face, Super-potent for palms).
Tourette's Syndrome
Tics are sudden, rapid, recurrent, non-rhythmic motor movements or vocalisations that are experienced as irresistible but can be suppressed temporarily. The hallmark feature distinguishing tics from other involuntary...
Transient Ischaemic Attack (TIA)
A Transient Ischaemic Attack (TIA) is a transient episode of neurological dysfunction caused by focal brain, spinal cord, or retinal ischaemia, without acute infarction. Historically defined by the 24-hour rule...
Transient Synovitis (Irritable Hip)
Transient Synovitis, commonly known as "Irritable Hip" or "Observation Hip", is the most common cause of acute hip pain and limp in children aged 3-10 years, with peak incidence at 5-6 years. It represents a benign,...
Trichomoniasis
Fact Value ------ ------- Definition STI caused by flagellated protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis Global Incidence 156 million new cases/year (WHO) Organism Protozoan parasite (NOT bacteria or virus) Transmission...
Tubulointerstitial Nephritis (TIN)
TIN accounts for 15-27% of all cases of AKI in hospitalized patients and up to 10-15% of cases requiring renal biopsy for unexplained AKI. The condition has evolved considerably over the past two decades, with proton...
Turf Toe (Adult)
Turf toe is a sprain of the plantar capsulo-ligamentous complex of the first metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint, resulting ... MRCS, FRCS (Tr&Orth) exam preparatio
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to Type 1 Diabetes diagnosis, insulin management, technology, and complications
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (Adult)
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic progressive metabolic disorder characterized by chronic hyperglycemia resul... MRCP, USMLE exam preparation.
Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever (Enteric Fever)
Enteric fever is a life-threatening systemic infection caused by the invasive bacteria Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (typhoid fever) or Paratyphi A, B, C (paratyphoid fever). This condition remains a major global...
Ulcerative Colitis (Adult)
Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic, idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) characterized by continuous mucosal inflammation of the colon, always involving the rectum and extending proximally to varying degrees....
Undescended Testes (Cryptorchidism) (Child)
Undescended testis (UDT), or cryptorchidism, is the most common congenital anomaly of the male genitourinary system, aff... MRCPCH exam preparation.
Urinary Incontinence (Adult)
Urinary Incontinence (UI) is defined by the International Continence Society as "the complaint of involuntary loss of urine." It represents a major public health issue affecting millions of individuals worldwide, with...
Urinary Retention in Adults
Urinary retention is defined as the inability to voluntarily pass an adequate amount of urine, resulting in increased post-void residual (PVR) volume. It is classified into acute urinary retention (AUR) and chronic...
Urinary Tract Infection (Adult)
Urinary tract infection (UTI) represents one of the most prevalent bacterial infections worldwide, accounting for approximately 150 million cases annually and significant healthcare expenditure. UTIs are classified...
Urinary Tract Infection (Paediatrics)
Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) is the most common serious bacterial infection in children , accounting for approximately 7 million office visits and 100,000 hospitalizations annually. It ranges from benign lower tract...
Urinary Tract Infection in Adults
Urinary tract infection (UTI) is bacterial infection of any component of the urinary system, most commonly the bladder (... MRCP exam preparation.
Urticaria (Hives)
CSU, representing approximately 70% of chronic cases, is frequently driven by autoimmune mechanisms involving autoantibodies against the high-affinity IgE receptor (FcεRI) or IgE itself. Angioedema , affecting deeper...
Varicella Zoster Virus (Chickenpox & Shingles)
Varicella Zoster Virus (VZV), also known as Human Herpesvirus 3 (HHV-3), is a neurotropic alphaherpesvirus that causes two clinically distinct syndromes separated by decades: varicella (chickenpox) as the primary...
Vascular Dementia
The pathophysiology involves multiple mechanisms: macrovascular disease causing cortical infarcts, microvascular disease (arteriolosclerosis) affecting white matter and deep grey structures, and strategically placed...
Vasculitis - Comprehensive
Vasculitis is inflammation of blood vessel walls leading to vessel damage, narrowing, occlusion, and subsequent organ is... MRCP exam preparation.
Venous Leg Ulcers
The pathognomonic presentation comprises a shallow, exudating ulcer typically located in the "gaiter area" (distal third of the leg, particularly the medial malleolar region), surrounded by characteristic stigmata of...
Viral Conjunctivitis
The disease is highly contagious , spreading through direct contact with infected ocular secretions and contaminated fomites (towels, pillowcases, ophthalmic equipment). Most cases follow a self-limiting course , with...
Viral Warts (Verrucae)
Viral warts are benign epithelial proliferations caused by infection of keratinocytes with Human Papillomavirus (HPV) . They represent one of the most common dermatological conditions, affecting up to 10-20% of...
Vitamin B12 Deficiency & Pernicious Anaemia
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) deficiency represents a critical nutritional disorder with potentially devastating haematologica... MRCP exam preparation.
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (Thrush)
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to Vulvovaginal Candidiasis covering epidemiology, molecular pathophysiology, Sobel classification, diagnosis, management of uncomplicated and complicated disease, recurrent VVC...