Emergency Medicine
Browse 496 topics in emergency medicine.
Absence Seizures (Paediatric)
Absence seizures are generalized onset non-motor seizures characterized by sudden, brief lapses in consciousness (typically 5–20 seconds) without loss of postural tone. They are the hallmark of Childhood Absence...
Acetabular Fracture
Acetabular fractures: classification, imaging, surgical indications, and management of hip socket fractures in high-energy trauma.
Achilles Tendon Rupture
An Achilles tendon rupture is a complete disruption of the calcaneal tendon, the strongest and largest tendon in the human body. It most commonly occurs in the "watershed zone" (2–6 cm proximal to the calcaneal...
ACL Injury
An Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) injury is a complete or partial disruption of the primary intra-articular stabilizer of the knee. The ACL's primary role is to resist anterior translation of the tibia relative to...
Acromioclavicular Joint Injury
Acromioclavicular joint injuries: mechanism, Rockwood classification, diagnosis, and evidence-based management from conservative treatment to surgical reconstruction.
Acute Angle Closure Glaucoma
The rapid IOP spike (often 50-70 mmHg) leads to ischaemic damage to the optic nerve, retina, and corneal endothelium. Treatment is a time-critical hierarchy: immediate medical reduction of IOP followed by definitive...
Acute Angle Closure Glaucoma
Acute Angle Closure Glaucoma (AACG), also termed Acute Primary Angle Closure (APAC), is an ophthalmic emergency characte... FRCOphth, MRCGP exam preparation.
Acute Angle-Closure Glaucoma
Acute angle-closure glaucoma (AACG) is a vision-threatening condition caused by sudden blockage of aqueous humor outflow... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Acute Appendicitis
Acute appendicitis is the most common surgical emergency worldwide, with a lifetime risk of 7-8% and an incidence of app... MRCS exam preparation.
Acute Appendicitis (Paediatric)
Acute appendicitis is the most common surgical emergency in children, affecting approximately 1-8% of children presenting with acute abdominal pain to the emergency department. It has a peak incidence between 10-12...
Acute Asthma Exacerbation
In the United Kingdom, asthma affects approximately 5.4 million people, leading to roughly 75,000 emergency hospital admissions and 1,400 deaths annually. A critical finding in the National Review of Asthma Deaths...
Acute Behavioural Disturbance
ABD encompasses a spectrum from mild agitation to life-threatening excited delirium syndrome (ExDS). Causes include subs... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Fellowshi
Acute Bronchiolitis - Adult
Acute bronchiolitis in adults is an inflammatory condition of the small airways (bronchioles, below 2 mm diameter) most ... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Acute Bronchiolitis - Paediatric
Bronchiolitis is an acute viral infection of the lower respiratory tract, primarily affecting infants aged 2-12 months. ... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Acute Chest Syndrome
The clinical course is often unpredictable, with many cases developing 48–72 hours into an admission for a painful VOC. The pathophysiology involves a "vicious cycle" where regional hypoxia leads to red cell sickling...
Acute Cholangitis
Acute cholangitis is a life-threatening systemic infection arising from bacterial contamination of an obstructed biliary... MRCP, FRACS exam preparation.
Acute Cholecystitis
The modern management of acute cholecystitis is defined by the Tokyo Guidelines (TG18) , which provide a standardized framework for diagnosis and severity grading. The historical "cool it off" approach with...
Acute Cholecystitis
Acute cholecystitis is an acute inflammatory condition of the gallbladder, most commonly resulting from cystic duct obst... MRCS exam preparation.
Acute Compartment Syndrome
The hallmark clinical feature is pain out of proportion to the clinical findings , with pain on passive stretch of compartment muscles being the most reliable early sign. Pulselessness and paralysis are late...
Acute Conjunctivitis
Viral conjunctivitis, primarily caused by Adenovirus , accounts for 65–90% of all infectious cases in adults. Bacterial conjunctivitis is less common in adults than in children but remains significant, often caused by...
Acute Cough in Adults
Acute cough is defined as a cough lasting less than 3 weeks . It is one of the most common reasons for seeking medical advice, representing approximately 3% of all primary care consultations. The vast majority...
Acute Dehydration - Paediatric
Acute dehydration in children represents a deficit in total body water resulting from fluid losses exceeding intake. It ... MRCPCH exam preparation.
Acute Diverticulitis
Diagnosis is primarily confirmed by CT abdomen/pelvis with intravenous contrast, which demonstrates pericolic fat stranding, bowel wall thickening, and complications such as abscess or perforation. The modified...
Acute Epiglottitis
Management is defined by a fundamental safety principle: Secure the Airway First . Any intervention that disturbs the child—including throat examination, venipuncture, or radiological investigation—can precipitate...
Acute Epiglottitis
Acute epiglottitis is a life-threatening inflammatory condition of the epiglottis and supraglottic structures that can p... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Acute Epiglottitis in Adults
Acute epiglottitis is a life-threatening inflammatory condition affecting the epiglottis and surrounding supraglottic structures, capable of progressing rapidly to complete airway obstruction. Following widespread...
Acute Haemolytic Crisis
An acute haemolytic crisis represents rapid, pathological destruction of red blood cells (RBCs), resulting in anemia, ja... MRCP exam preparation.
Acute Headache in Adults
Acute headache is one of the most common presentations in emergency departments, representing 2–4% of all visits. The primary clinical challenge is to distinguish common, benign primary headaches (migraine,...
Acute Heart Failure
Key Facts The "Flash" Phenomenon : In hypertensive AHF, symptoms arise from fluid redistribution (sympathetic-mediated vasoconstriction) rather than total body volume overload. Time is Myocardium : Every hour of delay...
Acute Heart Failure
The clinical presentation is heterogenous but typically involves signs of fluid overload (congestion) and, in more severe cases, reduced cardiac output (peripheral hypoperfusion). Management is prioritized into three...
Acute Heart Failure
Acute heart failure encompasses both new-onset heart failure and acute decompensation of chronic heart failure (ADHF), p... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Fellowshi
Acute Intermittent Porphyria (AIP)
AIP is often referred to as a "little imitator" because its symptoms—severe abdominal pain, psychiatric disturbances, and neurological deficits—mimic many common conditions, frequently leading to delayed diagnosis or...
Acute Ischaemic Stroke
Comprehensive Gold Standard guide to acute ischaemic stroke diagnosis and management, including thrombolysis, thrombectomy, and secondary prevention.
Acute Ischaemic Stroke
Epidemiology : 85% of strokes are ischaemic; 15% haemorrhagic. Stroke is the fourth leading cause of death in the UK ( 26,000 deaths annually) and the leading cause of adult disability. Pathophysiology : Arterial...
Acute Ischemic Stroke - Thrombolysis
Acute ischemic stroke accounts for 87% of all strokes, with mortality of 15-30% at 30 days if untreated. Time is brain –... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Fellowshi
Acute Ischemic Stroke - Thrombolysis and Thrombectomy
Acute ischemic stroke accounts for 87% of all strokes, with mortality of 15-30% at 30 days if untreated. Time is brain –... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Acute Kidney Injury - Emergency Management
Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) in the emergency department requires rapid assessment to identify reversible causes (pre-renal... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)
The diagnosis is established using the KDIGO (2012) criteria , which defines AKI as a rise in serum creatinine of ≥26.5 µmol/L within 48 hours or a 1.5-fold increase from baseline. Management is focused on identifying...
Acute Kidney Injury in Children
Acute kidney injury (AKI) in children represents a sudden decline in kidney function characterised by rising serum creat... MRCPCH exam preparation.
Acute Kidney Injury Pathology
Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) is classified by KDIGO into Stages 1-3 based on creatinine rise and urine output. Pathophysiologically, AKI is divided into pre-renal (hypoperfusion), intrinsic (tubular, glomerular,...
Acute Limb Ischaemia
The pathophysiology involves two primary mechanisms: embolism (usually cardiac origin, e.g., atrial fibrillation) or thrombosis (in situ thrombosis of a pre-existing atherosclerotic plaque or bypass graft)....
Acute Liver Failure
Key Facts The Definition Triad : 1. Acute onset (less than 26 weeks), 2. Coagulopathy (INR ≥1.5), 3. Encephalopathy. The "Killer" Mechanism : Cerebral oedema leading to brainstem herniation is the most common cause of...
Acute Low Back Pain
However, the critical clinical challenge lies in identifying the 5-15% of patients with potentially serious underlying pathology—collectively termed "red flag" conditions—including cauda equina syndrome, malignancy,...
Acute Lower GI Bleeding
Acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB) is a medical emergency characterized by bleeding from the gastrointestinal tract distal to the ligament of Treitz, presenting as hematochezia (bright red or maroon blood...
Acute Myocardial Infarction
Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) represents myocardial cell death (necrosis) due to prolonged ischemia, typically resul... MRCP exam preparation.
Acute Nausea and Vomiting in Adults
Comprehensive emergency diagnosis and management of acute nausea and vomiting in adults with evidence-based differential diagnosis and treatment protocols
Acute Oesophagitis
Acute oesophagitis represents sudden-onset inflammation of the oesophageal mucosa, most commonly secondary to gastro-oes... MRCP exam preparation.
Acute Pericarditis
Acute pericarditis is defined as inflammation of the pericardial sac, the double-layered fibroserous membrane that envel... MRCP exam preparation.
Acute Pericarditis
Acute pericarditis is the most common pericardial disease, accounting for 5% of ED chest pain presentations. While most ... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Acute Pharyngitis
Acute Pharyngitis is acute inflammation of the pharynx and/or tonsils, characterized by sore throat as the predominant s... FRCEM exam preparation.
Acute Poisoning - General Approach
Acute poisoning is exposure to a toxic substance causing harm through ingestion, inhalation, injection, or dermal contac... MRCEM exam preparation.
Acute Post-Operative Bleeding
Post-operative bleeding (POB) is a potentially life-threatening surgical complication characterized by excessive hemorrh... MRCS exam preparation.
Acute Psychosis
Psychosis describes a syndrome of disordered thought, perception, and reality testing. In the ED, the priority is threef... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Fellowshi
Acute Psychotic Episode (Adult)
An acute psychotic episode is a psychiatric emergency characterized by loss of contact with reality, manifesting as hall... MRCPsych exam preparation.
Acute Respiratory Distress - Paediatric
Acute respiratory distress in children represents increased work of breathing or inadequate ventilation resulting from a... MRCPCH exam preparation.
Acute Sepsis - Paediatric
Sepsis in children is defined as life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection.... MRCPCH exam preparation.
Acute Severe Asthma in Adults
Acute severe asthma is a medical emergency characterised by progressive bronchospasm, airway inflammation, and mucus hyp... MRCP exam preparation.
Acute Severe Ulcerative Colitis (ASUC)
The management of ASUC is a race against time. The "Three-Day Rule" is the cornerstone of modern care: failure to demonstrate a significant biological response to high-dose intravenous corticosteroids by Day 3...
Acute Sinusitis (Adult)
Acute rhinosinusitis (ARS) is inflammation of the paranasal sinuses and nasal cavity lasting less than 12 weeks, most commonly following a viral upper respiratory tract infection (URI). The condition represents a...
Acute Soft Tissue Infection
Acute soft tissue infections (SSTIs) represent a spectrum of bacterial infections affecting the skin, subcutaneous tissu... MRCS exam preparation.
Acute Upper Airway Obstruction
Key Facts Definition : Blockage of airway above the level of the carina (tracheal bifurcation) Incidence : 2-5% of emergency airway presentations; rare but critical Mortality : 5-10% if treated promptly; near 100% if...
Acute Urinary Retention
Acute urinary retention (AUR) is the sudden and painful inability to pass urine despite a full bladder, representing a u... MRCS exam preparation.
Acute Valvular Dysfunction
Acute valvular dysfunction represents sudden failure or severe deterioration of heart valve function, causing either reg... MRCP exam preparation.
Acute Vertigo in Adults
Acute vertigo is the illusion of movement, typically rotational, resulting from asymmetric vestibular system input. It represents a diagnostic challenge in emergency and primary care settings, with critical importance...
Acute Wound Care
Critical Alerts Control hemorrhage first : Direct pressure for 5-10 minutes; tourniquet if life-threatening extremity bleeding Assess neurovascular status : Before anesthesia and after repair; document thoroughly...
Acute Wound Dehiscence
Wound dehiscence is the partial or complete separation of the layers of a surgical wound following closure. It represents a spectrum from superficial skin separation to complete fascial disruption with evisceration...
Addison's Disease (Primary Adrenal Insufficiency)
Addison's disease is primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) caused by destruction or dysfunction of the adrenal cortex, res... MRCP exam preparation.
Addisonian Crisis (Acute Adrenal Insufficiency)
Adrenal crisis presents with hypotension, hyponatraemia, hyperkalaemia, hypoglycaemia, and often hyperpigmentation (in p... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Adrenal Crisis
Adrenal crisis is an acute, life-threatening state of cortisol deficiency that requires immediate recognition and treatm... CICM Second Part exam preparation.
Advanced Life Support - Adult
Adult Advanced Life Support provides the framework for managing cardiac arrest beyond basic CPR and AED use. ALS incorpo... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Airway Foreign Body - Adult
Foreign body airway obstruction is a preventable cause of asphyxial death, causing 60-100 deaths annually in Australia. ... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Alcohol Dependence (Alcohol Use Disorder)
Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD), previously termed alcohol dependence, is a chronic, relapsing neurobiological condition characterised by compulsive alcohol seeking and use despite harmful consequences, impaired control...
Alcohol Withdrawal in ICU
Compare symptom-triggered vs fixed-schedule benzodiazepine protocols (evidence, dosing, advantages)... CICM Second Part exam preparation.
Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to alcohol withdrawal syndrome: pathophysiology, CIWA-Ar scoring, benzodiazepine protocols, delirium tremens management
Amniotic Fluid Embolism (AFE)
Amniotic Fluid Embolism (AFE) is a catastrophic, unpredictable obstetric emergency characterised by the sudden onset of ... MRCOG exam preparation.
Amphetamine Toxicity
Benzodiazepines are first-line for all amphetamine-induced agitation - titrate to effect, start high and go fast (IV ... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Anaesthesia for Trauma
Trauma is the leading cause of death in Australians aged 1-44 years, with major trauma requiring coordinated multidisciplinary care including damage control resuscitation (DCR) principles. Primary survey follows ABCDE...
Anaphylaxis
Anaphylaxis is a severe, life-threatening, generalised or systemic hypersensitivity reaction characterised by rapidly de... MRCP exam preparation.
Anaphylaxis
Anaphylaxis is a rapid-onset, IgE or non-IgE mediated systemic allergic reaction affecting multiple organ systems. It af... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Ankle Fractures in Adults: Comprehensive Clinical Management
1.1 Summary Ankle fractures represent a disruption of the bony and/or ligamentous architecture of the tibiotalar joint, which is a highly congruent hinge joint essential for locomotion. These injuries are among the...
Ankle Sprain
The acute lateral ankle sprain is the single most common musculoskeletal injury in the active population, accounting for approximately 2 million injuries annually in the United States alone. It involves stretching or...
Anxiety Disorders in Adults: Comprehensive Clinical Management
Anxiety disorders represent the most prevalent class of mental disorders worldwide, characterized by excessive fear, anx... MRCP, MRCPsych exam preparation.
Aortic Dissection
Mechanism : Intimal tear → blood dissects into media → false lumen formation → propagation proximally/distally Incidence : 5-30 per million per year; peak age 60-70 years; male:female ratio 2-3:1 Presentation : Sudden...
Aortic Dissection
Aortic dissection occurs when an intimal tear allows blood to enter the medial layer of the aorta, creating a false lume... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Aplastic Crisis
The condition is most commonly triggered by parvovirus B19 infection, which selectively targets erythroid precursors via P antigen (globoside) receptor binding, causing direct cytotoxic lysis and arrest of red cell...
Ascites and Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis
Ascites is the pathological accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity, occurring in 50% of patients with compensated cirrhosis within 10 years of diagnosis. It represents a critical transition from compensated to...
Aspiration Pneumonia
Key Facts Incidence : Accounts for 5-15% of community-acquired pneumonia; up to 30% in nursing home residents Pathogenesis : Failure of airway protective mechanisms → aspiration of colonised oropharyngeal/gastric...
Asthma - Adult
Acute asthma exacerbations result from acute bronchospasm, airway inflammation, and increased mucus production causing r... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Asthma - Paediatric
Acute paediatric asthma is a reversible obstructive airway disease characterised by bronchospasm, airway inflammation, a... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Asthma in ICU (Status Asthmaticus)
Comprehensive CICM Second Part clinical guide to Status Asthmaticus (acute severe asthma) in the ICU, covering pathophysiology, dynamic hyperinflation, auto-PEEP, mechanical ventilation strategies, permissive...
Asystole and Pulseless Cardiac Arrest
Asystole is complete absence of cardiac electrical activity (flat line ECG) with below 2% survival, while PEA (Pulseless... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Atrial Fibrillation - Acute Management
Acute AF in the ED demands rapid evaluation for instability (immediate cardioversion), determination of onset timing (48... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Fellowshi
Atrial Fibrillation in Adults
Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a supraventricular tachyarrhythmia characterized by uncoordinated atrial electrical activati... MRCP, PLAB exam preparation.
Atrial Fibrillation with Rapid Ventricular Response
Atrial fibrillation with rapid ventricular response (AF-RVR) is a common cardiovascular emergency characterized by irreg... MRCP, FRACP exam preparation.
Australian Marine Envenomation
Immediate vinegar (4-6% acetic acid) for ALL jellyfish stings - inactivates undischarged nematocysts... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Second Part Hot Case e
Australian Spider Envenomation
Funnel-web: Pressure Immobilisation Bandaging (PIB) immediately, CSL Funnel-Web Spider Antivenom, ICU admission... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Second Part
Awake Intubation
Awake intubation maintains spontaneous ventilation while establishing a definitive airway in patients with predicted dif... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Bacterial Meningitis - Adult
Bacterial meningitis is a life-threatening infection of the meninges requiring immediate empirical antibiotics (Ceftriax... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Bacterial Meningitis - Paediatric
Never delay antibiotics for lumbar puncture - Draw blood cultures, give antibiotics, then perform LP if safe... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary Viva exam
Bag-Mask Ventilation
Bag-mask ventilation (BMV) provides manual positive pressure ventilation using a self-inflating bag, one-way valve, and ... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV)
Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV) is the most common cause of peripheral vertigo, accounting for approximately... MRCP exam preparation.
Bennett's Fracture
The fracture is characterized by a two-part fracture pattern : a small volar-ulnar fragment remains attached to the trapezium via the strong anterior oblique ligament (volar beak ligament), while the main metacarpal...
Benzodiazepine Overdose
Understanding the pharmacological basis of benzodiazepine toxicity, recognition of high-risk scenarios (particularly opioid co-ingestion), and appreciation of the risks associated with antidote administration are...
Benzodiazepine Overdose
Benzodiazepine overdose causes CNS depression ranging from mild sedation to coma, typically described as "coma with stab... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Beta-Blocker and Calcium Channel Blocker Overdose
ABCDE, high-flow O₂, secure large-bore IV access (2 x 14G)... CICM Primary Written, CICM Fellowship Written exam preparation.
Beta-Blocker Overdose
Beta-blocker overdose represents a life-threatening cardiovascular emergency characterized by profound bradycardia, hypo... MRCP, FRACP exam preparation.
Biliary Colic & Acute Cholecystitis
Biliary colic and acute cholecystitis represent a clinical spectrum of gallstone-related disease affecting the gallbladder. Biliary colic is transient right upper quadrant (RUQ) pain caused by temporary cystic duct...
Bleeding Disorders in Adults
Bleeding disorders encompass a heterogeneous group of conditions characterized by impaired haemostasis, leading to exces... MRCP exam preparation.
Blunt Chest Trauma
Blunt chest trauma accounts for 25-50% of all trauma deaths and is the second leading cause of mortality after head inju... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Borderline Personality Disorder (EUPD)
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD), also known as Emotionally Unstable Personality Disorder (EUPD) in ICD-10, is a severe mental disorder characterised by a pervasive pattern of instability in interpersonal...
Both Bone Forearm Fracture (Paediatric)
Both bone forearm fractures (BBFF) represent one of the most common fracture patterns in the paediatric population, acco... FRCS Orth exam preparation.
Botulism
Botulism is a rare but potentially life-threatening neuroparalytic illness caused by botulinum toxin, produced by the an... MRCP, USMLE exam preparation.
Boxer's Fracture (5th Metacarpal Neck Fracture) (Adult)
A Boxer's Fracture is a fracture through the neck of the 5th metacarpal bone, representing the most common metacarpal fr... MRCS exam preparation.
Bradycardia and Cardiac Conduction Disorders
Symptomatic bradycardia (heart rate below 50 bpm) with hypotension, altered conscious level, or signs of shock is a medi... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Bradycardia in Adults
Bradycardia is defined as a heart rate below 60 beats per minute (bpm) on resting electrocardiogram. While bradycardia can be a normal physiological finding in well-conditioned athletes and during sleep, pathological...
Brain Tumour
Key Facts Epidemiology : Primary brain tumours: 7-8 per 100,000/year; metastases 10x more common Most common primary tumour : Meningioma (benign); Glioblastoma (malignant) Most common sources of metastases : Lung...
Breaking Bad News (SPIKES)
Breaking bad news is one of the most challenging and important communication tasks in clinical medicine. It refers to the process of conveying information that adversely and seriously affects an individual's view of...
Broad-Complex Tachycardia
Broad-complex tachycardia accounts for 20-30% of ED tachyarrhythmias. Approximately 80% are VT, rising to 95% in patient... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Fellowshi
Brown Snake Envenomation
Brown snakes (Pseudonaja species) are responsible for the majority of snakebite deaths in Australia. The venom contains ... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Bulimia Nervosa (BN) - Adult
Bulimia Nervosa (BN) is a severe eating disorder characterised by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by inappro... MRCPsych exam preparation.
Burns - Adult
Burns are tissue injuries caused by thermal, chemical, electrical, or radiation sources. In Australia, burns affect 25-3... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Burns - Emergency Assessment and Management
Burn Depth Classification: Superficial (epidermis, red, painful), Superficial Partial (blisters, moist, blanches, ver... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Burns Assessment and Management
Burns are tissue injuries caused by heat (thermal), chemicals, electricity, radiation, or friction, representing one of ... MRCS, FRACS exam preparation.
Burns Pathology
Define/Describe - Jackson zones, burn depth classification... CICM First Part Written SAQ, CICM First Part Written MCQ exam preparation.
Calcium Channel Blocker Overdose
Calcium channel blocker (CCB) overdose is a potentially lethal cardiovascular poisoning characterized by profound bradycardia, hypotension, cardiogenic shock, and metabolic derangements including hyperglycaemia....
Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition Disease (CPPD)
CPPD predominantly affects older adults, with radiographic chondrocalcinosis present in 15-30% of people aged 70 years and up to 50% of those 90 years . However, symptomatic disease is considerably less common than...
Can't Intubate Can't Oxygenate (CICO)
What is it? Can't Intubate Can't Oxygenate (CICO) is a life-threatening airway emergency where tracheal intubation has failed AND oxygenation cannot be achieved via facemask or supraglottic airway (SGA). This...
Carbon Monoxide and Cyanide Poisoning
100% oxygen via non-rebreather or intubation (reduces CO half-life from 4-5 hours to 60-90 minutes)... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Second Part Hot Case ex
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning is a leading cause of fatal poisoning worldwide, resulting from inhalation of CO gas which binds haemoglobin with 200-250 times greater affinity than oxygen, forming carboxyhaemoglobin...
Cardiac Arrest - Adult
Cardiac arrest is the cessation of mechanical cardiac activity confirmed by the absence of a palpable central pulse, unr... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Cardiac Tamponade
Cardiac tamponade occurs when pericardial fluid accumulates faster than the parietal pericardium can stretch, causing in... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Cardiac Tamponade in Adults
Cardiac tamponade is a life-threatening cardiovascular emergency characterized by accumulation of fluid within the pericardial space, resulting in elevated intrapericardial pressure and impaired ventricular filling....
Cardiogenic Shock
Cardiogenic shock occurs when the heart fails to pump sufficient blood to meet metabolic demands, resulting in systemic ... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Fellowshi
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) - Adult
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a lifesaving technique combining chest compressions and rescue ventilations to maintain circulatory flow and oxygenation during cardiac arrest. High-quality CPR is the...
Cauda Equina Syndrome
The most common cause is massive central lumbar disc herniation (typically at L4/5 or L5/S1), accounting for approximately 45% of cases, though tumors, trauma, epidural abscess, and hemorrhage are important...
Cauda Equina Syndrome (Adult)
Cauda Equina Syndrome (CES) is a rare but potentially catastrophic neurosurgical emergency caused by compression of the lumbosacral nerve roots below the level of the conus medullaris (typically L1/L2 vertebral...
Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis
Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST) is thrombosis of the dural venous sinuses and/or cerebral veins, causing impaire... MRCP exam preparation.
Cervical Spine Injury in Adults
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to emergency diagnosis and management of cervical spine injury in adults including clinical clearance protocols, spinal cord syndromes, and definitive treatment
Cervical Spine Trauma
NEXUS Criteria (PMID: 9971872): No midline tenderness, no focal deficit, normal alertness, no intoxication, no painfu... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Chemical Restraint and Acute Behavioural Disturbance
Acute behavioural disturbance (ABD) affects 5-10% of ED presentations and represents a medical emergency requiring rapid... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Chest Drain (Tube Thoracostomy) Insertion
Anatomical safety zone: 5th intercostal space, mid-axillary line (nipple line in males, inframammary fold in females)... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Cholera
The cornerstone of cholera management is rapid and aggressive fluid replacement with oral rehydration solution (ORS) or intravenous fluids. With appropriate rehydration therapy, case fatality rates can be reduced from...
Chopart Injury
The Chopart Joint (Midtarsal Joint, Transverse Tarsal Joint) is a complex articulation consisting of the Talonavicular (TN) and Calcaneocuboid (CC) joints. This S-shaped joint complex is critical for the foot's...
Clavicle Fracture
The landmark Canadian Orthopaedic Trauma Society (COTS) Trial in 2007 fundamentally changed practice by demonstrating that plate fixation of completely displaced midshaft clavicle fractures reduces non-union rates...
Coagulation Disorders Pathology
Coagulation disorders in critical illness result from complex interactions between inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and haemostatic pathways. DIC involves simultaneous coagulation activation (tissue factor...
Cocaine Toxicity
Presynaptic Catecholamine Reuptake Inhibition: Blocks reuptake of noradrenaline, dopamine, and serotonin in synaptic ... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Community-Acquired Pneumonia - Adult
Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is an acute lower respiratory tract infection acquired outside hospital, presenting w... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Community-Acquired Pneumonia (CAP)
Successful management is predicated on the "Early Recognition and Rapid Intervention" paradigm. This involves immediate clinical suspicion, prompt severity stratification using validated scoring systems (CURB-65 or...
Conjunctivitis
Conjunctivitis is the inflammation of the conjunctiva, the thin transparent mucous membrane that covers the white of the... MRCP exam preparation.
Costochondritis
The pathognomonic feature is reproducible, localized tenderness on palpation of the affected costochondral junctions, most frequently involving the 2nd to 5th ribs. Unlike cardiac pain, costochondritis is typically...
Crisis Resource Management in Intensive Care
Crisis Resource Management (CRM) represents a systematic approach to managing extreme demand for critical care services,... CICM Fellowship Written, CICM Fellow
Croup (Laryngotracheobronchitis)
Answer: Croup is acute viral laryngotracheobronchitis causing subglottic airway oedema in children aged 6 months to 3 years. Classic triad: barking seal cough, inspiratory stridor, hoarseness. Severity assessed using...
Crush Injury
Crush injury is defined as compression of extremities or other body parts for prolonged periods, leading to tissue ischa... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Crush Injury & Crush Syndrome
Crush injury is compressive trauma to body parts causing direct tissue damage through mechanical disruption and ischemia... MRCP, EDIC exam preparation.
Damage Control Resuscitation
Damage Control Resuscitation (DCR) is a systematic approach to managing life-threatening hemorrhagic shock that prioriti... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT) - Adult
Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT) is the formation of a blood clot (thrombus) within the deep venous system, most commonly affe... MRCP exam preparation.
Deliberate Self-Harm
Deliberate self-harm affects 200-250 per 100,000 Australians annually presenting to emergency departments. It encompasse... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Delirium in the Emergency Department
Delirium affects 10-25% of older ED patients and is a medical emergency with 10-26% in-hospital mortality and 25-33% mor... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Fellowshi
Diabetic Ketoacidosis (Adult)
Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) is a life-threatening acute metabolic emergency characterized by the pathognomonic triad of hyperglycemia , ketosis , and metabolic acidosis . It represents a state of absolute or relative...
Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)
Diabetic Ketoacidosis represents absolute or relative insulin deficiency combined with counter-regulatory hormone excess... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Difficult Airway Management
The difficult airway occurs in 1-6% of emergency department intubations and carries mortality of 25-30% if mismanaged, p... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Digoxin Toxicity
Digoxin toxicity occurs when serum levels exceed the therapeutic window (0.5-2.0 ng/mL), inhibiting myocardial Na+/K+ AT... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Diphtheria
The diphtheria exotoxin is absorbed systemically and causes serious complications including myocarditis (Heart failure, Arrhythmias, Complete Heart Block) and neuropathy (Cranial nerve and peripheral nerve paralysis)....
Disaster Preparedness in Intensive Care
Activate Hospital Incident Command System (HICS)... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Second Part Hot Case exam preparation.
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)
Key Facts Always secondary : DIC is never a primary diagnosis — identify and treat the underlying cause Pathophysiology : Uncontrolled thrombin generation → microthrombi formation → consumption of platelets and...
Distal Radius and Wrist Fractures (Adult)
Distal radius fractures (DRF) are the most common fractures in adults, accounting for approximately 18% of all fractures... MRCS, FRCS (Tr & Orth), FRACS exam p
Distributive Shock (Adult)
Distributive shock is characterized by profound systemic vasodilation leading to maldistribution of blood flow and inadequate tissue perfusion despite normal or elevated cardiac output. Unlike hypovolemic or...
DNACPR & Advance Decisions
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to DNACPR decision making, legal framework (Mental Capacity Act), ReSPECT process, capacity assessment, best interests decisions, communication strategies, and ethical considerations...
DOAC-Associated Bleeding in Adults
Direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) have revolutionized anticoagulation therapy, offering predictable pharmacokinetics wi... MRCP, FRCEM exam preparation.
Dog & Human Bites
Mammalian bites (Dog, Cat, Human) are common injuries with significant infection risk due to inoculation of polymicrobial oral flora deep into tissues. Dog bites account for 60-90% of mammalian bite injuries...
Domestic Violence and Abuse
Domestic and family violence (DFV) is a pervasive public health issue affecting 1 in 3 women and 1 in 4 men in their lif... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Drowning
Key Facts Definition : Respiratory impairment from submersion/immersion in liquid (WHO 2002) Global burden : 236,000 deaths annually; 90% in low- and middle-income countries Primary injury mechanism : Hypoxia from...
Drowning - ICU Management
Day 1-3 post-drowning with ARDS requiring mechanical ventilation... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Second Part Hot Case exam preparation.
Drowning Resuscitation
Drowning is a respiratory impairment process caused by submersion/immersion in liquid, leading to hypoxia and potentiall... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Dyspepsia (Adult)
Dyspepsia is defined as epigastric pain or burning, postprandial fullness, or early satiation . It affects 10-40% of the global population , making it one of the most common reasons for gastroenterology consultations....
ECMO/ECPR
Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO) is a modified heart-lung machine providing temporary cardiopulmonary support ... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Ectopic Pregnancy
An ectopic pregnancy is the implantation of a fertilized ovum outside the normal uterine endometrial cavity. Over 95% of ectopic pregnancies occur in the Fallopian tube, with the ampulla being the most common site....
Ectopic Pregnancy
Ectopic pregnancy accounts for 1-2% of all pregnancies but remains a leading cause of maternal mortality in the first tr... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
eFAST Examination
eFAST (Extended Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma) is a rapid, bedside ultrasound examination to detect free... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Electrical Cardioversion
ALWAYS press SYNC button before cardioversion - asynchronous shock in R-on-T can precipitate ventricular fibrillation... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Electrical Injury and Lightning Strike
Electrical injuries cause devastating deep tissue damage, cardiac arrhythmias, and systemic complications disproportionate to visible burns. Key principles:
Electrolyte Emergencies
Electrolyte emergencies are critical disturbances in serum potassium, sodium, calcium, or magnesium that pose immediate ... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Electrolyte Emergencies
Electrolyte emergencies are critical disturbances in serum sodium, potassium, calcium, or magnesium that pose immediate ... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Emergency Delivery
Emergency delivery (precipitous birth) occurs in 1-3% of births and carries 2-5 times higher neonatal mortality than pla... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Encephalitis
Empiric acyclovir (10 mg/kg IV q8h) must be started immediately upon suspected HSV encephalitis—do NOT wait for lumba... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Environmental Medicine - Australia
Australian environmental emergencies involve venomous snakes, spiders, and marine creatures unique to our region. Snake ... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Epididymo-orchitis
Epididymo-orchitis is an acute or chronic inflammatory condition affecting the epididymis and/or testis, representing th... MRCP, FRCS, PLAB exam preparation.
Epilepsy in Adults: Clinical Diagnosis and Management
1.1 Summary Epilepsy is defined by the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) as a disease of the brain characterized by an enduring predisposition to generate epileptic seizures and by the neurobiological,...
Erysipelas
Primary Pathogen : Group A Streptococcus ( Strep pyogenes ) - 80-90% of cases Secondary Pathogens : Group G/C Streptococcus ( S. dysgalactiae ) - increasingly recognized Anatomical Depth : Upper dermis and superficial...
Erythema Multiforme
Historically, EM was incorrectly grouped with Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) as part of a single disease spectrum. Current evidence firmly establishes EM as a distinct entity with...
Esophageal Foreign Body
Emergency diagnosis and management of esophageal foreign body ingestion in adults
Ethanol Toxicity
Ethanol toxicity ranges from mild intoxication to life-threatening withdrawal, hypoglycaemia, and Wernicke encephalopath... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Extradural Haematoma
The classic presentation features the "lucid interval" an initial brief loss of consciousness following trauma, apparent recovery to near-normal neurological status, followed by rapid deterioration as the haematoma...
Extradural Haemorrhage (Epidural Haematoma)
Extradural Haemorrhage (EDH), also known as epidural haematoma, is a neurosurgical emergency characterised by arterial b... MRCP, FRCS Neurosurgery exam prepara
Extrapyramidal Side Effects (EPS)
Recognition of EPS is paramount for the clinician. These effects not only cause profound physical and psychological distress but are also the primary drivers of medication non-adherence, leading to disease relapse....
Extubation Criteria
Extubation is the planned removal of an endotracheal tube after determining a patient can maintain adequate spontaneous ... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Fellowshi
Facial Lacerations
Evidence-based emergency diagnosis and management of facial lacerations in adults
Failed Intubation Drill
Failed intubation occurs in 1-3% of emergency department intubations and can rapidly deteriorate to a CICO (Can't Intuba... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Fat Embolism Syndrome
Key Facts Timing : 12-72 hours after injury (peak 24-48 hours; rarely less than 12 hours or >1 week) Classic triad : Respiratory insufficiency (75-95%) + neurological dysfunction (60-80%) + petechial rash (20-50%)...
Febrile Convulsion (Febrile Seizure) in Children
Febrile convulsions are seizures occurring in children aged 6 months to 5 years, associated with fever (temperature ≥38°... MRCPCH exam preparation.
Femoral Hernia
The clinical presentation ranges from asymptomatic groin swelling detected incidentally to acute surgical emergencies with bowel obstruction and peritonitis. Physical examination revealing a lump below and lateral to...
Focal Seizures (Partial Seizures)
Focal seizures originate from a localized area within one cerebral hemisphere, representing approximately 60% of all epilepsy cases. The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) 2017 classification replaced the...
Foreign Body Airway Obstruction - Paediatric
Immediate Action : If conscious with ineffective cough → Call for help, 5 back blows, 5 chest thrusts (infants: chest thrusts only, no abdominal thrusts). If unconscious → Start CPR, check mouth for visible object...
Foreign Body Nasal - Paediatric
Nasal foreign bodies are common paediatric emergencies, peaking at 2-5 years. Immediate airway assessment is critical, e... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Fournier's Gangrene
Fournier's gangrene is a rare but life-threatening form of necrotising fasciitis affecting the perineum, genitalia, and ... MRCS, MRCP exam preparation.
Fournier's Gangrene
Fournier's Gangrene is a fulminant, life-threatening necrotising fasciitis of the perineum, genitalia, and perianal regi... FRCS exam preparation.
Funnel-Web Spider Envenomation
Funnel-web spider envenomation is a life-threatening emergency caused by delta-hexatoxin (robustoxin) from the Sydney Fu... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Galeazzi Fracture-Dislocation
A Galeazzi fracture-dislocation is a fracture of the distal third of the radius (typically within 7.5 cm of the radiocar... FRCS Orth, FRACS Orth exam preparati
Gallstones (Cholelithiasis)
The pathophysiology centres on supersaturation of bile with cholesterol or bilirubin, leading to nucleation and crystal aggregation. Approximately 75-80% of gallstones are cholesterol stones, while 15-20% are pigment...
Gamekeeper's Thumb (UCL Injury)
Gamekeeper's thumb refers to insufficiency of the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) of the thumb metacarpophalangeal (MCP)... MRCS exam preparation.
Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid (GHB) Toxicity
GHB toxicity presents with rapid-onset CNS depression (GCS often 3), respiratory depression, bradycardia, hypothermia, a... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Gout and Crystal Arthropathies
Gout is the most common inflammatory arthritis worldwide, affecting approximately 2.5% of adults in developed countries. It is a crystal deposition disease caused by the precipitation of Monosodium Urate (MSU)...
Greenstick Fracture in Children
A greenstick fracture is an incomplete fracture of long bones unique to the paediatric skeleton, characterized by cortical breach on the tension (convex) side while the compression (concave) side remains intact. The...
Guillain-Barré Syndrome
GBS is the most common cause of acute flaccid paralysis worldwide, affecting 1-2 people per 100,000 annually. Up to 30% ... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Hallux Fracture
Fractures of the hallux (great toe) are common foot injuries resulting from direct trauma (dropping heavy objects), stubbing mechanisms (axial load), or hyperextension injuries. Unlike lesser toes, the hallux plays a...
Hand Infections
Unlike infections elsewhere in the body, hand infections carry an exceptionally high risk of permanent disability if not recognized and treated urgently. The tendon nutrition depends on synovial fluid circulation and...
Hand Injuries
Comprehensive emergency diagnosis and management of acute hand injuries including high-pressure injection, tendon injuries, fractures, and fight bites
Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease (Child)
Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease (HFMD) is a highly contagious viral illness predominantly affecting children under 5 years of age , characterised by the classical triad of painful oral ulcers , vesicular rash on hands...
Head Injury (Adult Traumatic Brain Injury)
Evidence-based emergency diagnosis and management of head injury and traumatic brain injury in adults
Headache Red Flags
Headache is a common ED presentation (2-4% of all visits), but 1-4% harbour life-threatening pathology. The SNOOP mnemon... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Health Advocacy in Emergency Medicine
One-liner : Health advocacy in emergency medicine is the systematic identification and mitigation of barriers to optimal patient care through individual, institutional, and systemic action.
Heart Block (AV Block)
Atrioventricular (AV) block represents impaired electrical conduction between the atria and ventricles, ranging from mild PR interval prolongation (first-degree) to complete absence of AV conduction (third-degree or...
Heat Illness Prevention
Acclimatization reduces heat illness risk by 40-60% and requires 7-14 days of progressive heat exposure with earlier ... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Heat Stroke in Adults
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to the diagnosis and emergency management of heat stroke in adults, including pathophysiology, cooling methods, and multi-organ complications
Hip Fracture (Neck of Femur)
What is it? Hip fractures are fractures of the proximal femur, classified as intracapsular (within the hip joint capsule, risk of avascular necrosis) or extracapsular (trochanteric/subtrochanteric, risk of mechanical...
Human & Animal Bites
Mammalian bite wounds present a significant infectious disease challenge due to polymicrobial oral flora, with infection rates varying from 5% (dog bites) to 50% (cat bites). The unique anatomy of bite...
Hyperemesis Gravidarum
Hyperemesis Gravidarum (HG) is a severe form of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy (NVP) characterised by persistent intra... MRCOG, FRANZCOG exam preparation.
Hyperemesis Gravidarum
Affects 0.3-3% of pregnancies, peaks at 8-12 weeks gestation. Life-threatening complications include Wernicke encephalop... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Hyperosmolar Hyperglycaemic State (HHS)
HHS is characterised by a relative insulin deficiency that is sufficient to prevent lipolysis and ketogenesis but insufficient to facilitate glucose utilisation or suppress hepatic gluconeogenesis. This results in...
Hyperosmolar Hyperglycaemic State (HHS)
Hyperosmolar Hyperglycaemic State (HHS, formerly HONK/HHNS) is the most lethal hyperglycaemic emergency with 15-20% mort... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Hypertensive Emergency
Hypertensive emergencies affect 1-2% of all hypertensive patients and carry 5-25% mortality depending on end-organ invol... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Fellowshi
Hyperthermia and Heat Stroke
Heat stroke is a life-threatening hyperthermic emergency with core temperature 40°C and neurological dysfunction. Rapid cooling is the priority. Key principles:
Hyperthermia Emergency (Heat Illness)
Heat stroke is defined by core temp greater than 40°C + CNS dysfunction - confusion, seizures, coma. Mortality 10-50%... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis
Examination demonstrating 'olive' mass and gastric peristaltic waves... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellowship OSCE exam preparation.
Hyperviscosity Syndrome
Key Facts Cause : IgM paraprotein (Waldenström's 85%), IgA/IgG3 (myeloma 10-15%), cellular (polycythaemia less than 5%) Classic triad : Neurological (70%) + visual (60%) + bleeding (50%) symptoms Diagnosis : Serum...
Hypocalcaemia
Common aetiologies include hypoparathyroidism (most frequently post-surgical following thyroidectomy or parathyroidectomy), vitamin D deficiency, chronic kidney disease-mineral bone disorder (CKD-MBD),...
Hypoglycaemia - Emergency Management
Hypoglycaemia is a medical emergency defined by the clinical triad of low blood glucose (below 4.0 mmol/L in ED context)... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Hypoglycaemia in Adults
Hypoglycaemia is defined as blood glucose below 4.0 mmol/L (72 mg/dL) and represents one of the most common acute complications of diabetes management. It occurs when glucose delivery or production fails to meet...
Hypokalaemia
Clinical manifestations include muscle weakness, cramps, constipation, polyuria, and cardiac effects ranging from palpitations to ventricular arrhythmias. ECG changes are pathognomonic: U waves, flattened T waves, ST...
Hypothermia - Emergency Medicine
Accidental hypothermia is defined as an involuntary drop in core body temperature below 35°C (95°F). It ranges from mild... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Hypovolemic Shock (Adult)
Hypovolemic shock is a life-threatening circulatory failure state characterised by inadequate intravascular volume to ma... MRCP, FRCEM exam preparation.
Immune Thrombocytopenia (ITP)
A comprehensive guide to Immune Thrombocytopenia (ITP), covering diagnostic exclusion criteria, differentiation from TTP, and the management ladder (Steroids - IVIg - TPO-RAs - Splenectomy).
Incarcerated Hernia in Adults: The Definitive Gold Standard Reference
1.1 Summary An incarcerated hernia occurs when the contents of a hernia sac—be it omentum, small bowel, large bowel, or other viscera—become trapped outside their native cavity and cannot be manually reduced. This...
Infective Gastroenteritis
While the majority of adult cases in developed nations are viral (Norovirus) and self-limiting, bacterial gastroenteritis ( Campylobacter , Salmonella , E. coli ) presents a more severe clinical picture, often with...
Influenza (Flu)
Influenza is an acute viral respiratory infection caused by Influenza viruses A and B, representing one of the most sign... MRCP, FRACP exam preparation.
Intracerebral Haemorrhage
Comprehensive Gold Standard guide to intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) for postgraduate medical examinations including MRCP, FRCS, and medical finals.
Intracerebral Haemorrhage
Intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) accounts for 10-15% of all strokes and has the highest mortality of stroke subtypes at 3... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Intraosseous (IO) Access
IO is second-line to IV (ANZCOR: IV preferred, IO if IV cannot be rapidly achieved within 2 attempts)... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary Viva exam prepara
Intraosseous (IO) Vascular Access
IO access is a bridge, not a destination - Replace with IV/CVC within 24 hours. Risk of osteomyelitis increases signi... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Intussusception - Adult
Adult intussusception is rare (5% of intestinal obstructions, 2-3 cases per million adults/year) and has a lead point... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Intussusception - Paediatric
Lethargy as presenting feature: Not just pain—lethargy occurs in 20-30% and may be the first sign... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary Viva exam preparation
Intussusception in Children
Intussusception is the invagination (telescoping) of a proximal segment of bowel (the intussusceptum) into an adjacent d... MRCS, FRCS Paediatric Surgery, MRCPC
Ischaemic Stroke (Adult)
Ischaemic stroke is the sudden onset of focal neurological deficit resulting from arterial occlusion, leading to cerebral infarction. It represents approximately 85% of all strokes, with the remaining 15% being...
Jellyfish Envenomation
Jellyfish envenomation in Australia ranges from mild stings to life-threatening emergencies. Box jellyfish (Chironex fle... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Joint Dislocation in Adults
A joint dislocation occurs when the articular surfaces of a joint lose complete contact with one another, resulting in j... FRCS (Tr&Orth) exam preparation.
Kidney Stones (Nephrolithiasis)
Nephrolithiasis (kidney stones) is one of the most common urological conditions, affecting 10-12% of the global populati... FRCS(Urol) exam preparation.
Knee Ligament and Meniscal Injuries (Adult)
Knee ligament and meniscal injuries represent some of the most common musculoskeletal injuries presenting to emergency departments and orthopaedic clinics worldwide. The knee joint is a modified hinge joint that...
Labyrinthitis (Adult)
Labyrinthitis is acute inflammation of the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear, affecting both the vestibular apparatu... MRCP, FRCS ENT exam preparation.
Laryngomalacia
Laryngomalacia accounts for 60-75% of all congenital stridor cases. Most infants (90%) have mild disease that resolves s... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Laryngotracheobronchitis
Croup is the most common cause of acute upper airway obstruction in children, affecting 3-5% annually with a mortality b... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Leptospirosis
Leptospirosis is endemic in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly northern Australia (Queensland, Northern Terr... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Limb Trauma
Limb trauma encompasses a spectrum of injuries from simple fractures to severe mangled extremities. The emergency physic... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Lisfranc Injury
The Lisfranc injury refers to a disruption of the tarsometatarsal (TMT) joint complex, specifically involving the Lisfranc Ligament which anchors the 2nd Metatarsal base to the Medial Cuneiform. This ligament is the...
Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding
Lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB) refers to bleeding originating from a source distal to the ligament of Treitz, en... MRCP, FRCS exam preparation.
Ludwig's Angina
The infection typically originates from odontogenic sources (80-90% of cases), most commonly from the mandibular second and third molars whose roots extend below the mylohyoid muscle into the submandibular space. The...
Lumbar Puncture (Emergency)
CT before LP is required if: age greater than 60, immunocompromised, CNS disease history, recent seizure, focal neuro... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Major Depressive Disorder in Adults
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a common, serious, and potentially life-threatening psychiatric condition characteriz... MRCP, PLAB exam preparation.
Major Haemorrhage in Adults
Major haemorrhage is life-threatening acute blood loss requiring immediate massive transfusion and source control. It is defined by transfusion of ≥4 units of packed red blood cells (pRBC) in less than 1 hour, ≥10...
Major Trauma in Adults
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to the assessment, resuscitation, and management of major trauma in adults following ATLS principles
Mallet Finger (Adult)
Mallet finger represents a disruption of the terminal extensor mechanism at the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint, resulting in loss of active DIP extension. The injury occurs when sudden forceful flexion is applied...
Mallory-Weiss Tear
A Mallory-Weiss tear is a longitudinal mucosal or submucosal laceration occurring at or near the gastro-oesophageal junction (GOJ), typically caused by a sudden and forceful increase in intra-abdominal pressure...
Malrotation and Volvulus (Child)
Intestinal malrotation is a Congenital Anomaly of Midgut Rotation and Fixation occurring during embryological development, resulting in an Abnormal Position of the Small and Large Bowel within the abdominal cavity....
Massive Haemoptysis
Massive haemoptysis represents a true time-critical emergency with mortality rates of 30-80% if untreated, primarily fro... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Massive Pulmonary Embolism
Emergency diagnosis and management of massive (high-risk) pulmonary embolism with hemodynamic instability in adults
Massive Transfusion Protocol
Massive transfusion occurs in approximately 10-25% of major trauma patients requiring blood products. Mortality ranges f... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Massive Transfusion Protocol (Adult)
A massive transfusion protocol (MTP) is a standardized institutional approach to rapidly deliver large volumes of blood products to patients with life-threatening hemorrhage. MTP activation streamlines blood bank...
Maternal Cardiac Arrest
Maternal cardiac arrest requires immediate resuscitation with pregnancy-specific modifications: manual uterine displacem... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Maxillofacial Trauma
Maxillofacial trauma encompasses injuries to the facial skeleton including mandible, maxilla, zygoma, orbit, and nasoeth... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
McBurney's Point (Acute Appendicitis)
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to McBurney's Point, acute appendicitis diagnosis, clinical examination techniques, anatomical variations, surgical approaches, and management protocols for postgraduate medical and...
Mechanical CPR
Mechanical cardiopulmonary resuscitation devices (AutoPulse load-distributing band, LUCAS piston device, ZOLL) deliver a... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Mechanical Ventilation in the Emergency Department
Emergency physicians must initiate ventilation with lung-protective settings (tidal volume 6-8 mL/kg predicted body weig... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Melioidosis
Melioidosis is the most important tropical infection in northern Australia, with incidence rates of 16.5-50 per 100,000 ... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Meningitis and Encephalitis in Adults
Meningitis and encephalitis are life-threatening infections of the central nervous system requiring immediate recognition and treatment. Bacterial meningitis is inflammation of the meninges caused predominantly by...
Mental Health Act - Australia & New Zealand
Each Australian state/territory and New Zealand operates under separate Mental Health legislation with significant varia... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Metastatic Spinal Cord Compression
Metastatic spinal cord compression (MSCC) is an oncological emergency occurring in 5-10% of cancer patients where spinal... MRCP, FRACP exam preparation.
Metastatic Spinal Cord Compression (MSCC)
The cardinal presenting symptom is pain (present in 83-95% of cases), which characteristically precedes neurological deterioration by weeks to months. This pain is often nocturnal (worse at night due to venous...
Metatarsal Fractures
Fractures of the metatarsals represent the most common traumatic foot injuries, accounting for approximately 35% of all foot fractures and occurring at an incidence of 6.7 per 10,000 person-years. Management is highly...
Miscarriage (Early Pregnancy Loss)
Miscarriage (spontaneous abortion) is the spontaneous loss of pregnancy before 24 weeks of gestation, with the vast majo... MRCOG, MRCP exam preparation.
Miscarriage (Types and Management)
Miscarriage is the spontaneous loss of pregnancy before viability, defined as before 24 weeks gestation in the UK (befor... MRCOG, MRCP exam preparation.
Monteggia Fracture-Dislocation
A Monteggia fracture-dislocation is a fracture of the proximal third of the ulna with an associated dislocation of the radial head at the proximal radioulnar joint (PRUJ). First described by Giovanni Battista...
Multi-Organ Dysfunction Syndrome (MODS) Pathology
Multi-Organ Dysfunction Syndrome (MODS) is the progressive, potentially reversible dysfunction of two or more organ systems arising from an acute threat to systemic homeostasis. MODS represents the final common...
Murphy's Sign (Acute Cholecystitis)
Comprehensive guide to Murphy's Sign: examination technique, diagnostic accuracy, pathophysiology, and clinical application in acute cholecystitis diagnosis. Evidence-based approach to right upper quadrant pain...
Myasthenic Crisis
One-liner : Myasthenic crisis is life-threatening respiratory failure from severe weakness in myasthenia gravis requiring early intubation, immunotherapy (IVIg or plasma exchange), and ICU management.
Myocarditis
The diagnosis requires high clinical suspicion, particularly in young patients presenting with cardiac symptoms following viral illness. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) has emerged as the gold standard...
Myxoedema Coma
Key Facts The "Winter Peak" : Over 90% of cases occur during winter months due to cold-induced stress on minimal thermogenic reserves. The T4-T3 Block : In severe illness, the peripheral conversion of T4 to active T3...
Myxoedema Coma
Myxoedema coma represents the most severe manifestation of decompensated hypothyroidism with mortality rates of 25-60% e... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Myxoedema Coma
Myxoedema coma (myxedema crisis) is the extreme decompensated state of hypothyroidism with mortality 20-60% despite inte... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Nail Bed Injuries
Nail bed injuries are among the most common hand injuries presenting to Emergency Departments, accounting for approximat... FRCS (Plast) exam preparation.
Near-Drowning
Hypoxia is the primary cause of death - start rescue breathing immediately, even before checking for a pulse... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellowship OSCE
Near-Drowning and Submersion Injury
Near-drowning (submersion with survival 24 hours) causes severe hypoxic brain injury, pulmonary complications, and often hypothermia. Key principles:
Neck and Laryngeal Anatomy
Define/Describe - Overview of neck and laryngeal divisions and boundaries... CICM First Part Written SAQ, CICM First Part Written MCQ exam preparation.
Necrotising Fasciitis
The hallmark clinical feature is severe pain that appears disproportionate to the physical examination findings—a result of deep fascial involvement and nerve ischaemia occurring before significant skin changes become...
Necrotising Fasciitis
One-liner : Necrotising fasciitis is a rapidly progressive, life-threatening soft tissue infection requiring emergency surgical debridement within 6-12 hours to prevent death.
Neonatal Resuscitation
Neonatal resuscitation affects 2-10 per 1000 live births, with mortality reaching 20-30% without appropriate interventio... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Nerve Blocks in the Emergency Department
Indications and contraindications for common ED nerve blocks... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellowship OSCE exam preparation.
Newborn Resuscitation
85% of term newborns transition spontaneously within 10-30 seconds of birth; only 10% require any assistance; under 1... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Non-Invasive Ventilation (NIV/BiPAP/CPAP)
BiPAP is first-line for COPD exacerbation with respiratory acidosis (pH 7.25-7.35) - NNT 5 to prevent intubation, NNT... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
NSTEMI and Unstable Angina (Non-ST-Elevation ACS)
Non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome (NSTE-ACS) encompasses NSTEMI and unstable angina, characterized by acute cardi... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Fellowshi
Obstructive Shock (Adult)
Obstructive shock is a form of circulatory failure caused by mechanical obstruction to blood flow into or out of the heart, resulting in critically reduced cardiac output despite normal or increased intravascular...
Oesophageal Varices
Approximately 50% of patients with cirrhosis have varices at the time of diagnosis , with the prevalence increasing to 60-80% in those with decompensated cirrhosis. The annual incidence of new varix formation is 5-8%...
Open Fracture
An open fracture (compound fracture) is defined as a fracture with a direct communication between the external environment and the fracture haematoma, either through traumatic disruption of the overlying soft tissues...
Opioid Overdose
Opioid overdose occurs when excessive opioid agonism at mu-receptors causes life-threatening respiratory depression thro... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Opioid Overdose in Adults
Emergency diagnosis and management of opioid overdose in adults including naloxone administration, harm reduction, and observation protocols
Opioid Use Disorder
The opioid epidemic has evolved through three distinct waves: prescription opioid overprescribing (1990s-2000s), heroin resurgence (2010s), and synthetic opioid proliferation particularly fentanyl (2015-present)....
Organophosphate Poisoning
Organophosphate (OP) poisoning is a life-threatening toxicological emergency resulting from exposure to insecticides (ag... MRCP, FRCA exam preparation.
Organophosphate Poisoning
Organophosphate (OP) poisoning is a medical emergency requiring immediate antidotal therapy with atropine and pralidoxim... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Ovarian Cysts
Ovarian cysts are fluid-filled or semisolid structures within or on the surface of an ovary, representing one of the mos... MRCOG exam preparation.
Ovarian Torsion
The condition predominantly affects women of reproductive age (20-40 years) but can occur at any age from infancy to post-menopause. The presence of an ovarian mass—particularly cysts or tumours exceeding 5cm in...
Paediatric Advanced Life Support (PALS)
Paediatric cardiac arrest differs fundamentally from adult arrest. Most paediatric arrests are asphyxial (respiratory in... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Paediatric Airway Management
The paediatric airway differs fundamentally from the adult airway in anatomy, physiology, and pathology. Children are NO... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Paediatric Cardiac Arrest
Survival depends on early recognition of pre-arrest states (bradycardia, respiratory failure), rapid initiation of BLS w... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Paediatric Respiratory Failure
High-flow oxygen therapy or HFNC (humidified 2 L/kg/min)... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Second Part Hot Case exam preparation.
Paediatric Trauma
Trauma is the leading cause of death in children 1-14 years, with TBI accounting for 70-80% of trauma-related mortali... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Secon
Paediatric Trauma
Paediatric trauma accounts for a significant proportion of ED presentations and mortality in children. Unlike adults, ch... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Palliative & Oncological Emergencies
Oncological emergencies represent acute, life-threatening or function-threatening complications that can occur at any stage of malignancy, from initial presentation through to end-of-life care. These emergencies...
Pandemic Response in Intensive Care
Activate Hospital Incident Command System (HICS)... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Second Part Hot Case exam preparation.
Paracetamol Overdose
Paracetamol (Acetaminophen) overdose is one of the most common poisonings in the Western world. It causes hepatotoxicity... MRCP exam preparation.
Paraphimosis
Pearl 1 : Prevention is paramount — ALL healthcare staff performing catheterisation must be trained to replace the foreskin after the procedure. Failure to do so accounts for the majority of paraphimosis cases.
Paraquat Poisoning
Paraquat (1,1'-dimethyl-4,4'-bipyridylium) is a highly toxic bipyridyl herbicide with 60-90% mortality. Toxicity results... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Patella Dislocation (Adult)
Acute patellar dislocation is a common traumatic knee injury characterized by lateral displacement of the patella from the trochlear groove of the femur. It represents the second most common cause of acute traumatic...
Patella Fracture (Adult)
The patella is the largest sesamoid bone in the human body and serves a critical biomechanical function in the extensor ... MRCS, FRCS (Tr & Orth) exam preparat
Patellar Tendon Rupture (Adult)
Patellar tendon rupture is a complete disruption of the knee extensor mechanism occurring predominantly in younger, active adults (less than 40 years) . It represents a surgical emergency requiring prompt diagnosis...
PEA and Asystole (Non-Shockable Rhythms)
PEA is defined as an organised electrical rhythm on the monitor in the absence of a palpable central pulse, while asysto... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Pediatric Bacterial Meningitis
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to diagnosis and management of bacterial meningitis in neonates, infants, and children - emergency recognition, age-specific pathogens, CSF interpretation, empiric antibiotics, and...
Pelvic Fracture Trauma
Pelvic fractures represent high-energy injuries with significant mortality, primarily due to haemorrhage. Immediate mana... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Pelvic Fractures (Adult)
Pelvic fractures represent the most lethal orthopaedic injury encountered in trauma, with mortality rates ranging from 10% in stable fractures to 40-50% in open fractures. The pelvis is an osseoligamentous ring...
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) is an infection and inflammation of the upper female genital tract, encompassing the u... MRCOG, MRCS exam preparation.
Penetrating Abdominal Trauma
Penetrating abdominal trauma is a surgical emergency with mortality 15-25% for major vascular injuries. Immediate priori... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Penetrating Chest Trauma
Penetrating chest trauma requires rapid assessment and immediate life-saving interventions. Follow ATLS primary survey w... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Peptic Ulcer Disease
Test-and-Treat Strategy : NICE recommends non-invasive H. pylori testing (UBT or stool antigen) followed by eradication therapy for patients less than 55 years without alarm features, avoiding endoscopy. This strategy...
Perforated Viscus
Incidence : Perforated peptic ulcer 3.8-10 per 100,000/year; perforated diverticulitis 4 per 100,000/year Classic triad : Sudden severe abdominal pain + peritonism + pneumoperitoneum Examination hallmark : Board-like...
Perianal Abscess and Fistula-in-Ano
This condition represents one of the most common anorectal emergencies encountered in surgical practice, with significant implications for patient quality of life and functional outcomes. The fundamental surgical...
Pericardiocentesis
Ultrasound-guided pericardiocentesis has 90-97% success rate compared to 50-80% for blind technique (PMID: 12628672, ... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Perimortem Caesarean Section (Resuscitative Hysterotomy)
Maternal cardiac arrest occurs in approximately 1 in 30,000 deliveries with high mortality (60-70% if delayed). The grav... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Peritonsillar Abscess (Quinsy)
Peritonsillar abscess (PTA), also known as quinsy, is a collection of pus between the tonsillar capsule and the superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle in the peritonsillar space. It represents the most common deep...
Phaeochromocytoma Crisis
The cornerstone of acute management is alpha-adrenergic blockade FIRST using phentolamine (IV) or phenoxybenzamine (oral), followed only then by beta-blockade to control tachycardia. Beta-blockers administered alone...
Phimosis and Paraphimosis
Phimosis is the inability to retract the foreskin (prepuce) over the glans penis. It exists on a spectrum from physiological (normal and expected in infants and young children) to pathological (abnormal scarring in...
Pilon Fracture (Adult)
A pilon fracture (from the French pilon, meaning "pestle" or "hammer") is a complex intra-articular fracture of the dist... FRCS (Tr&Orth) exam preparation.
Placental Abruption
Placental abruption is a life-threatening obstetric emergency affecting 0.5-1% of pregnancies with perinatal mortality r... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Pleural Effusion - Emergency Management
Pleural effusion affects 1.5 million people annually in developed countries, with causes ranging from transudative (CHF,... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Pneumonia - Adult
CURB-65 score (0-1: outpatient, 2: consider admission, ≥3: severe - ICU assessment) is the most validated severity to... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Pneumonia - Paediatric
Tachypnoea is the most sensitive clinical sign of pneumonia: greater than 60/min (below 2 months), greater than 50/mi... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Pneumothorax in ICU
Comprehensive CICM Second Part clinical guide to Pneumothorax in the ICU, covering classification, aetiology, tension pneumothorax pathophysiology, detection in ventilated patients, needle decompression, chest drain...
Point-of-Care Ultrasound (POCUS)
Parameter Detail ----------- -------- Core Applications eFAST, cardiac views, lung ultrasound, IVC, AAA, DVT, procedural guidance ACEM Credential Core skill - required for Fellowship Minimum Training 25-50 supervised...
Post-Cardiac Arrest Care (Adult)
Post-cardiac arrest care encompasses the comprehensive management of patients who achieve return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) following cardiac arrest. This critical phase addresses the systemic consequences of...
Post-Intubation Management
Immediate post-intubation management requires systematic verification of correct ETT placement, secure fixation, and ini... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Post-Resuscitation Care
Post-resuscitation care is the critical phase between ROSC and definitive outcome, determining whether a patient survive... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Postpartum Endometritis
The condition is characterised by the classic triad : fever ( 38°C), uterine tenderness, and offensive lochia. Caesarean section is the single most important risk factor, increasing the risk 10-20 fold compared to...
Postpartum Haemorrhage
PPH affects 10-15% of deliveries and remains a leading cause of maternal mortality globally. The most common cause is ut... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Potassium Disorders: Hypokalemia and Hyperkalemia
Cardiac membrane stabilisation: Calcium gluconate 10% 10-20 mL IV over 2-5 min (or calcium chloride 10% 5-10 mL via C... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Secon
Pre-eclampsia
Key Facts: Definition : Hypertension ≥140/90 mmHg + proteinuria or end-organ dysfunction after 20 weeks Prevalence : 2-8% of pregnancies globally Incidence : 3-5% in developed countries, higher in developing countries...
Pre-eclampsia and Eclampsia
Pre-eclampsia affects 2-8% of pregnancies globally and remains a leading cause of maternal mortality, accounting for 10-... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Prepatellar Bursitis (Housemaid's Knee)
Prepatellar bursitis is inflammation of the prepatellar bursa, a superficial synovial-lined sac located anterior to the patella between the skin and the kneecap. It presents as a discrete, localised swelling over the...
Priapism
Ischaemic priapism accounts for 95% of cases and is a compartment syndrome of the penis. The aetiology is diverse: sickle cell disease (most common in children, affecting up to 40% over their lifetime),...
Primary Postpartum Haemorrhage (PPH)
Primary postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is defined as blood loss of ≥500ml following vaginal delivery or ≥1000ml following ... MRCOG exam preparation.
Primary Survey - ATLS
Primary survey is the systematic ABCDE approach to identify and immediately treat life-threatening injuries in trauma pa... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Procedural Sedation in the Emergency Department
Parameter Detail ----------- -------- Indications Fracture/dislocation reduction, cardioversion, laceration repair, abscess drainage, foreign body removal, diagnostic procedures (CT in agitated patient)...
Proximal Humerus Fracture (Adult)
Proximal humerus fractures (PHF) represent the third most common osteoporotic fracture in adults, accounting for approximately 5-6% of all fractures, following hip and distal radius fractures. They predominantly...
Pulled Elbow (Nursemaid's Elbow)
A Pulled Elbow (Radial Head Subluxation) is the most common upper limb injury in toddlers (1-4 years). It involves the Annular Ligament slipping proximally over the radial head and becoming entrapped in the...
Pulmonary Embolism
"Think PE in Unexplained Dyspnoea" : PE can present with isolated dyspnoea, pleuritic chest pain, syncope, or even just tachycardia. The classic triad of dyspnoea, chest pain, and haemoptysis occurs in less than 20%...
Pyloric Stenosis
Infantile Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis (IHPS) is the most common cause of gastric outlet obstruction in infants, characterised by progressive hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the pyloric smooth muscle causing...
Quinsy (Peritonsillar Abscess)
Quinsy, also known as Peritonsillar Abscess (PTA) , is a collection of pus in the peritonsillar space —the potential space located between the tonsillar capsule and the superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle. It is...
Rabies
Key Facts Causative Agent : Lyssavirus genus (14 species); rabies virus (genotype 1) causes 95% of human cases Transmission : Primarily via bite from rabid animal; saliva contact with broken skin or mucous membranes;...
Rabies Post-Exposure Prophylaxis
One-liner : Rabies PEP is a medical emergency requiring immediate wound washing (15 min), rabies immunoglobulin (20 IU/kg infiltrated into wound), and vaccine series (day 0/3/7/14/28) to prevent 100% fatal encephalitis.
Raised Intracranial Pressure
Raised ICP occurs when the volume of brain parenchyma, blood, or CSF exceeds the compensatory capacity of the rigid cran... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Rapid Sequence Intubation (RSI)
RSI is the gold standard for emergency airway management in the ED, used in greater than 90% of intubations. The 7 Ps fr... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Rapid Tranquillisation (RT)
Comprehensive, evidence-based guide to Rapid Tranquillisation protocols (NICE NG10/BAP-NAPICU 2018), detailing the stepped approach from de-escalation techniques to IM medication, pharmacological comparisons...
Redback Spider Envenomation
Critical Alert: Redback Spider Envenomation Redback spider ( Latrodectus hasselti ) envenomation causes latrodectism through alpha-latrotoxin-mediated massive neurotransmitter release. Clinical features include...
Renal Colic (Adult)
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to adult renal colic covering epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical recognition, advanced imaging strategies, pain management protocols, medical expulsive therapy, surgical...
Renal Stones (Urolithiasis)
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to urolithiasis covering epidemiology, stone composition, pathophysiology, emergency presentations, diagnostic imaging, medical expulsive therapy, and surgical interventions (ESWL,...
Resuscitative Thoracotomy
Emergency Department thoracotomy is indicated for penetrating thoracic trauma with witnessed arrest, allows release of p... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Retinal Detachment
Classic presentation follows a characteristic sequence: sudden onset floaters, photopsia (flashes of light), progressive "curtain" or shadow obscuring vision, culminating in visual field loss or complete vision loss...
Rhabdomyolysis
Comprehensive evidence-based review of rhabdomyolysis diagnosis and management in adults
Rhabdomyolysis
Life-threatening muscle breakdown syndrome (CK greater than 1,000 U/L) from trauma, drugs, exertion, or seizures causing... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Rhabdomyolysis
Rhabdomyolysis represents a clinical syndrome ranging from asymptomatic CK elevation to life-threatening multi-organ fai... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Rovsing's Sign
Rovsing's sign is a clinical examination finding used in the assessment of acute appendicitis, characterized by pain eli... MRCS exam preparation.
Ruptured Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
Ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm (rAAA) represents one of the most time-critical vascular emergencies, with overall mo... FRCS exam preparation.
Safeguarding (Children & Adults)
Safeguarding is the statutory duty to protect the health, well-being, and human rights of individuals (children and vuln... MRCPCH, General Practice exam prepar
Scaphoid Fracture (Adult)
The scaphoid is the most frequently fractured carpal bone, accounting for 60-70% of all carpal fractures and representin... MRCS exam preparation.
Scarlet Fever
The condition manifests with pathognomonic clinical features including Strawberry Tongue (initially white-coated with erythematous papillae, later denuded and beefy-red), flushed cheeks with circumoral pallor ,...
Secondary Postpartum Haemorrhage
The condition poses unique clinical challenges: the postpartum uterus is soft and friable (increasing surgical perforation risk), diagnosis of RPOC by ultrasound is fraught with false positives (blood clots mimicking...
Secondary Survey
The Secondary Survey is a comprehensive, head-to-toe physical examination performed after the Primary Survey confirms no immediate life threats. It begins with obtaining a history (using the AMPLE mnemonic), followed...
Sepsis - Paediatric
Phoenix Sepsis Score (2024) replaces SIRS: Score 2+ indicates sepsis (respiratory, cardiovascular, coagulation, neuro... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Sepsis and Septic Shock
Sepsis is defined by the Sepsis-3 (2016) consensus as life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host r... MRCP exam preparation.
Septic Arthritis
The classic presentation is a short history (less than 1 week) of a single hot, swollen, painful joint with restricted range of movement and systemic upset. Inability to weight bear is a key sign.
Septic Arthritis (Paediatric)
Septic arthritis in children is an orthopaedic emergency requiring immediate diagnosis and surgical intervention. It represents bacterial infection of the joint space that results in rapid, irreversible destruction of...
Septic Shock (Adult)
Septic shock is defined as a subset of sepsis characterized by profound circulatory, cellular, and metabolic abnormalities that substantially increase mortality. Under the Sepsis-3 definitions, septic shock requires:
Septic Shock (Adult)
Septic shock is defined as a subset of sepsis characterized by profound circulatory, cellular, and metabolic abnormalities that substantially increase mortality. Under the Sepsis-3 definitions, septic shock requires:
Septic Shock Management
Septic shock represents the most severe end of the sepsis spectrum with mortality 25-40%. Early recognition using qSOFA ... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Fellowshi
Serotonin Syndrome and Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
Serotonin Syndrome (SS) and Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome (NMS) are serious, potentially life-threatening drug-induced hyperthermic syndromes characterised by Hyperthermia, Altered Mental Status, Autonomic...
Severe Burns
A burn is tissue injury caused by heat, chemicals, electricity, radiation, or friction. Severe burns are those involving... MRCP exam preparation.
Severe Malaria
Severe malaria occurs when P. falciparum parasitemia is complicated by organ dysfunction (cerebral malaria, ARDS, AKI, s... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Severe Sepsis - Adult
Sepsis-3 Definition: Organ dysfunction (SOFA score increase ≥2) caused by infection - SIRS criteria abandoned... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary Viva exam
Shock
Shock is a life-threatening syndrome of acute circulatory failure resulting in inadequate cellular oxygen delivery and t... MRCP, MRCEM exam preparation.
Shockable Rhythms - Ventricular Fibrillation and Pulseless Ventricular Tachycardia
Ventricular fibrillation (VF) and pulseless ventricular tachycardia (pVT) represent the most treatable causes of cardiac... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Shoulder Dislocation (Adult)
The glenohumeral joint is the most commonly dislocated major joint in the body, accounting for approximately 45% of all joint dislocations. This high susceptibility to dislocation stems from the joint's unique...
Shoulder Dystocia
The underlying mechanism in most cases is impaction of the anterior fetal shoulder behind the maternal pubic symphysis , creating a bony obstruction that cannot be relieved by episiotomy alone. This is fundamentally a...
Shoulder Dystocia
This is a time-critical emergency occurring in 0.2-3% of vaginal deliveries, characterized by the pathognomonic "turtle ... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Sigmoid Volvulus
The condition is characterized by acute massive abdominal distension, absolute constipation, and relatively mild abdominal pain initially. Diagnosis is typically established by the pathognomonic "coffee bean sign" on...
SIRS and Sepsis Pathology
Sepsis is a life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection. The pathophysiology involves recognition of PAMPs and DAMPs by pattern recognition receptors (TLRs), triggering a...
Skin and Soft Tissue Abscess in Adults
A skin abscess is a localized collection of purulent material (pus) within the dermis and subcutaneous tissue, presentin... MRCEM exam preparation.
Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis (SCFE)
The pathophysiology involves mechanical overload of a weakened physis during the adolescent growth spurt , strongly associated with obesity ( 80% of patients), endocrine disorders (hypothyroidism, growth hormone...
Slipped Upper Femoral Epiphysis (SUFE)
Slipped Upper Femoral Epiphysis (SUFE), also known as Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis (SCFE), is a displacement of the... FRCS exam preparation.
Slipped Upper Femoral Epiphysis (SUFE)
The incidence ranges from 0.33 per 100,000 in Asian populations to 50.5 per 100,000 in high-risk populations, with marked ethnic variation. The condition predominantly affects obese males aged 10-16 years, with the...
Small Bowel Obstruction (SBO)
The pathophysiology involves mechanical occlusion of the intestinal lumen, leading to proximal bowel dilatation, fluid sequestration, electrolyte derangements, and potential vascular compromise. The classic clinical...
Smith's Fracture
Smith's fracture is a distal radius fracture characterised by volar (palmar) displacement and angulation of the distal f... FRCS exam preparation.
Smoke Inhalation Injury
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to diagnosis and management of smoke inhalation injury in adults
Smoke Inhalation Injury
Comprehensive CICM Second Part topic on smoke inhalation injury covering pathophysiology, carbon monoxide and cyanide poisoning, airway management, and ICU treatment strategies for burn patients with evidence-based...
Snake Bite Envenomation in Adults
Gold-standard evidence-based guide to venomous snake bites covering Elapidae (neurotoxic), Viperidae (hemotoxic/cytotoxic), envenomation syndromes, first aid, antivenom therapy, and supportive care for emergency...
Spinal Cord Compression - Emergency Management
Spinal cord compression (SCC) results from extrinsic pressure on the spinal cord from malignancy (most common), trauma, ... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Fellowshi
Spinal Fracture (Adult)
Spinal fractures represent a spectrum of vertebral injuries ranging from stable compression fractures to complex unstabl... FRCS Orth, FRACS Orth exam preparati
Splenic Sequestration Crisis
The pathophysiology involves acute vaso-occlusion within the splenic red pulp, trapping erythrocytes and leading to a dramatic reduction in circulating blood volume. Unlike other sickle cell crises, SSC predominantly...
Status Epilepticus
One-liner : Status epilepticus is continuous seizure activity lasting greater than 5 minutes or ≥2 seizures without recovery of consciousness; treat immediately with IV lorazepam or IM midazolam, escalate rapidly to...
Status Epilepticus in Adults
Status epilepticus (SE) is a neurological emergency defined as continuous seizure activity lasting ≥5 minutes or recurrent seizures without recovery of consciousness between episodes. It represents a failure of the...
STEMI Management in ICU
Comprehensive CICM Second Part clinical guide to STEMI Management in the ICU, covering reperfusion strategies (primary PCI vs fibrinolysis), antiplatelet and anticoagulation therapy, mechanical complications,...
STEMI Management in the Emergency Department
ST-elevation myocardial infarction represents complete occlusion of an epicardial coronary artery causing transmural myo... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Subarachnoid Haemorrhage (SAH)
Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) accounts for 5% of strokes but carries disproportionate mortality (40-50% at 30 days) and... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Subdural Haematoma
Key Facts Incidence : 10-25 per 100,000 population; higher in elderly ( 65 years: 50-80 per 100,000). Mortality : 30-90% overall; acute SDH 40-60%, chronic SDH 0-8% with surgical intervention. Age Distribution :...
Subdural Haemorrhage (SDH)
SDH is predominantly a venous bleed caused by rupture of bridging veins that traverse the subdural space, connecting the cerebral cortex to the dural venous sinuses. On neuroimaging, it characteristically appears as a...
Subtalar Dislocation
Key Facts The "Acquired Clubfoot" : A medial subtalar dislocation produces a clinical appearance identical to congenital talipes equinovarus (clubfoot deformity) in an adult, with the foot locked in inversion,...
Suicidal Patient Assessment
Emergency Department (ED) suicide assessment has shifted from "predicting" suicide (statistically impossible with accept... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Suicide Risk Assessment
The clinical approach to SRA has undergone a paradigm shift in the last decade, moving away from "risk prediction" (which has been shown to be mathematically impossible at the individual level) toward "risk...
Superior Vena Cava Obstruction
Superior vena cava obstruction (SVCO) represents compression, invasion, or thrombosis of the superior vena cava (SVC), i... MRCP exam preparation.
Supracondylar Fracture (Child)
Supracondylar fractures of the humerus are the most common elbow fracture in children, accounting for 50-60% of all paediatric elbow injuries. They typically occur in children aged 5-7 years following a Fall On...
Supracondylar Humerus Fracture (Paediatric)
Supracondylar humerus fractures represent the most common elbow fracture in children, accounting for 50-60% of all paediatric elbow injuries and approximately 3% of all paediatric fractures. These fractures occur in...
Supraglottic Airway Devices
description: "ACEM comprehensive guide to SGA use in emergency medicine",... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary Viva exam preparation.
Suprapubic Bladder Catheterization
Parameter Detail ----------- -------- Indications Acute urinary retention, failed urethral catheterization, urethral trauma/stricture, long-term catheterization Contraindications Empty bladder, pelvic malignancy,...
Supraventricular Tachycardia (Narrow Complex)
SVT accounts for 50,000 ED presentations annually in the US, with incidence 35 per 100,000 person-years. Most cases (60... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Surgical Airway - Cricothyroidotomy
Cricothyroidotomy is a life-saving procedure performed when all other airway management options have failed. The scalpel... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Syncope - Emergency Department Assessment
Syncope accounts for 1-3% of ED presentations and 6% of hospital admissions. While reflex syncope is most common (40-50%... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Fellowshi
Syncope in Adults
Syncope is transient loss of consciousness (TLOC) due to transient global cerebral hypoperfusion, characterised by rapid onset, short duration, and spontaneous complete recovery. It is one of the most common...
Syndesmosis Injury
Syndesmosis injuries, commonly referred to as "High Ankle Sprains" , represent 1-11% of all ankle sprains but account for disproportionate morbidity, with recovery times 2-3 times longer than lateral ankle ligament...
Tachycardia in Adults
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to adult tachycardia covering SVT vs VT differentiation, adenosine protocol, cardioversion indications, Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, and antiarrhythmic drug selection for emergency...
Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy
Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TTC), also known as stress cardiomyopathy or "broken heart syndrome," is an acute, reversible ... MRCP exam preparation.
Targeted Temperature Management (TTM)
Targeted Temperature Management (TTM) involves controlled regulation of body temperature post-cardiac arrest to reduce s... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Temporary Cardiac Pacing
Assess hemodynamic stability (hypotension, altered mental status, chest pain, heart failure)... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellowship OSCE exam preparatio
Tendon Rupture
Tendon rupture is the complete or partial discontinuity of a tendon resulting from acute trauma, chronic degeneration, o... FRCS (Tr&Orth) exam preparation.
Tension Pneumothorax
Key Facts Definition : Progressive accumulation of air in pleural space under pressure, causing mediastinal shift and cardiovascular compromise Incidence : 5-10% of traumatic pneumothoraces develop tension; rare in...
Tension Pneumothorax
Tension pneumothorax develops when air enters the pleural space through a one-way valve mechanism, progressively increas... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Termination of Resuscitation
Termination of resuscitation occurs when further CPR and advanced life support are unlikely to result in sustained retur... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Testicular Torsion
The classic presentation comprises sudden-onset severe unilateral scrotal pain, a high-riding testis with horizontal lie, and an absent cremasteric reflex. The condition is primarily a clinical diagnosis and should...
Tetanus
The global burden of tetanus has decreased dramatically over the past three decades, with deaths falling by nearly 90% between 1990 and 2019, primarily due to the WHO's Maternal and Neonatal Tetanus Elimination...
Tetanus
Tetanus presents with characteristic trismus (lockjaw), risus sardonicus, opisthotonos, and generalized muscle spasms tr... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
The Acute Abdomen
The "Acute Abdomen" is a clinical syndrome characterized by sudden, severe abdominal pain that typically develops over a period of hours and may require urgent surgical intervention. It is a working diagnosis that...
The Mental Capacity Act (MCA) 2005
The Mental Capacity Act 2005 (MCA) is the primary legislation in England and Wales governing decision-making for adults (aged 16+) who lack mental capacity. It provides a comprehensive statutory framework that...
Thermoregulation Pathology
Define/Describe - Normal thermoregulation, hypothalamic control... CICM First Part Written SAQ, CICM First Part Written MCQ exam preparation.
Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm & Dissection
Thoracic aortic aneurysm (TAA) represents pathological dilatation of the thoracic aorta, defined as diameter exceeding 1.5 times the expected normal size for a given aortic segment, age, sex, and body size. The...
Thoracic Aortic Dissection
Classification : The Stanford Classification is most clinically relevant: Type A : Ascending aorta involved (regardless of entry site) → Surgical Emergency Type B : Descending aorta only (distal to left subclavian) →...
Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura and Haemolytic Uraemic Syndrome in Adults
Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) and haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) are life-threatening thrombotic microang... MRCP exam preparation.
Thyroid Storm
Thyroid storm (thyrotoxic crisis) is a rare but life-threatening endocrine emergency characterized by severe, decompensa... MRCP exam preparation.
Thyroid Storm
Thyroid storm (thyrotoxic crisis) is an acute, severe, life-threatening exacerbation of thyrotoxicosis with multiorgan d... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Tibia Shaft Fracture (Adult)
Tibial shaft fractures represent the most common long bone fracture in adults, with an incidence of 16-26 per 100,000 person-years. The tibia's unique anatomy—with approximately one-third of its circumference being...
Tibial Plateau Fracture
Tibial plateau fractures are complex intra-articular injuries of the proximal tibia, representing approximately 1% of al... FRCS (Tr&Orth) exam preparation.
Tonsillitis
Tonsillitis is acute inflammation of the palatine tonsils, predominantly caused by viral or bacterial infection. It repr... MRCP, MRCGP exam preparation.
Toxic Alcohol Poisoning (Methanol & Ethylene Glycol)
Toxic alcohol poisoning encompasses the ingestion of methanol and ethylene glycol, two substances that undergo hepatic metabolism via alcohol dehydrogenase to produce highly toxic organic acid metabolites. Methanol is...
Toxicology - General Approach
The initial approach to any poisoned patient follows a structured ABCDE assessment with simultaneous history-taking and ... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Tracheostomy Care
Tracheostomy patients presenting to the ED require systematic assessment and immediate action for airway emergencies. The most critical emergencies are:
Transfusion Reactions
Recognition requires high clinical suspicion—any new symptom during transfusion warrants immediate cessation and systematic investigation. The two most challenging differential diagnoses are TRALI (transfusion-related...
Transient Synovitis (Irritable Hip)
Transient synovitis (TS), colloquially known as irritable hip , is a self-limiting, non-infective inflammatory condition of the hip joint. It represents the single most common cause of acute hip pain and limp in the...
Transient Synovitis (Irritable Hip)
Transient Synovitis, commonly known as "Irritable Hip" or "Observation Hip", is the most common cause of acute hip pain and limp in children aged 3-10 years, with peak incidence at 5-6 years. It represents a benign,...
Transport Equipment for Critical Care
CICM IC-1 Guideline: Minimum standards require appropriate personnel (trained in transport medicine), equipment (vent... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Secon
Transverse Myelitis
The term "transverse" refers to inflammation spanning the full or partial width of the spinal cord, disrupting ascending and descending neural pathways. Prompt recognition and treatment are critical, as early...
Trauma Resuscitation - Adult
One-liner : Trauma resuscitation requires immediate, systematic assessment using ATLS ABCDE protocol, damage control resuscitation (permissive hypotension, balanced blood product ratio, early TXA), and rapid...
Trauma Scene Safety
Trauma scene safety is the critical first step in emergency medicine, following the hierarchy: Self Partner/Crew Pub... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Traumatic Brain Injury
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects 180-250 per 100,000 Australians annually with 10-20% mortality for moderate-severe ... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Traumatic Cardiac Arrest
Traumatic cardiac arrest differs fundamentally from medical cardiac arrest in aetiology and management . While medica... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Tricyclic Antidepressant Overdose
Tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) overdose is a life-threatening toxicological emergency requiring immediate recognition and aggressive management. TCAs remain a significant cause of poisoning-related morbidity and...
Tricyclic Antidepressant Overdose
Tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) overdose is a medical emergency characterised by sodium channel blockade causing QRS prol... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Tropical Infections (Australia)
Australia's tropical north and remote Indigenous communities experience unique infectious disease profiles not seen else... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
Umbilical Cord Prolapse
Key Facts Incidence : 0.14-0.62% of deliveries (1.4-6.2 per 1000 births) Presentation : Visible/palpable cord at vulva; acute fetal bradycardia or severe variable decelerations immediately following spontaneous or...
Umbilical Cord Prolapse
Cord prolapse is an obstetric emergency with perinatal mortality of 9-47% if untreated. It occurs in 0.14-0.62 per 1,000... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding (Adult)
Upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB) is a common and potentially life-threatening medical emergency defined as bleedin... MRCP exam preparation.
Urinary Tract Infection (Adult)
Urinary tract infection (UTI) represents one of the most prevalent bacterial infections worldwide, accounting for approximately 150 million cases annually and significant healthcare expenditure. UTIs are classified...
Urinary Tract Infection in Adults
Urinary tract infection (UTI) is bacterial infection of any component of the urinary system, most commonly the bladder (... MRCP exam preparation.
Uterine Rupture
The condition occurs on a spectrum from incomplete rupture (scar dehiscence) , where the uterine serosa remains intact, to complete rupture with full-thickness tearing and potential extrusion of the fetus and placenta...
Venous Thromboembolism (VTE): Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism
Venous thromboembolism (VTE) encompasses deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE), representing a spectrum... MRCP, USMLE exam preparation.
Ventricular Arrhythmias in ICU
Comprehensive CICM Second Part clinical guide to Ventricular Arrhythmias in ICU, covering VT/VF classification, pathophysiology (re-entry, triggered activity, automaticity), Torsades de Pointes, Brugada syndrome,...
Ventricular Tachycardia
Key Facts Definition : VT = ≥3 consecutive ventricular beats at 100 bpm with wide QRS (≥120ms) Classification : Sustained ( 30s) vs non-sustained (less than 30s); monomorphic vs polymorphic ECG features : Wide QRS, AV...
Vestibular Neuritis
Critically, hearing is preserved in vestibular neuritis, distinguishing it from labyrinthitis which involves both vestibular and cochlear divisions of the vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII). Vestibular...
Video Laryngoscopy
First-pass success: VL increases first-pass success from 70-75% (DL) to 80-85% in most ED studies... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary Viva exam preparati
Viral Conjunctivitis
The disease is highly contagious , spreading through direct contact with infected ocular secretions and contaminated fomites (towels, pillowcases, ophthalmic equipment). Most cases follow a self-limiting course , with...
Viral Encephalitis
Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 (HSV-1) is the most common identified cause of sporadic, severe viral encephalitis in developed countries, accounting for 10-20% of all cases. Without treatment, HSV encephalitis carries a...
Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers
VHFs are classified as high-consequence infectious diseases (HCID) due to their high case-fatality rates (ranging from 1% to 90% depending on the pathogen), potential for person-to-person transmission, limited...
Volvulus (Adult)
Volvulus is the twisting of a segment of bowel around its mesentery , causing closed-loop obstruction and vascular compromise with risk of ischaemia, gangrene, and perforation . It accounts for 3-5% of large bowel...
Weedkiller (Paraquat) Poisoning
Redox cycling mechanism: Paraquat is reduced intracellularly to a free radical, then re-oxidised by oxygen, producing... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Fellowshi
Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
Wernicke's Encephalopathy (WE) : An acute, potentially reversible neurological emergency characterized by the classical triad of confusion, ataxia, and ophthalmoplegia. Without immediate treatment, mortality...