Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)

1. Clinical Overview

Summary

Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) is an infection and inflammation of the upper female genital tract, encompassing the uterus (endometritis), fallopian tubes (salpingitis), ovaries (oophoritis), and surrounding pelvic peritoneum. It results from ascending infection of microorganisms from the vagina and cervix into the normally sterile upper genital tract. PID is predominantly a polymicrobial infection, with Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis being the most common sexually transmitted pathogens, though anaerobic bacteria, Gram-negative organisms, and Mycoplasma genitalium are frequently implicated. [1,2]

PID represents a major public health concern due to its potential for serious long-term reproductive sequelae. Delayed diagnosis or inadequate treatment can lead to tubal factor infertility (10-20% after a single episode, 25-50% after two episodes, and > 50% after three or more episodes), ectopic pregnancy (6-10 fold increased risk), chronic pelvic pain (affecting 18-35% of women), and recurrent infection. [3,4] The condition disproportionately affects sexually active women under 25 years of age, with peak incidence in the 15-24 age group. [2]

Clinical presentation ranges from mild or subclinical disease (up to 70% of chlamydial PID may be asymptomatic) to severe systemic illness with tubo-ovarian abscess formation and sepsis. [5] The hallmark symptoms include bilateral lower abdominal pain, abnormal vaginal discharge, dyspareunia, and abnormal uterine bleeding. On examination, the classic finding is cervical motion tenderness (historically termed the "chandelier sign"), along with uterine and adnexal tenderness. [1,2]

Diagnosis is primarily clinical, as there is no definitive diagnostic test, and a low threshold for empirical treatment is recommended due to the serious consequences of untreated or delayed therapy. Laboratory investigations support the diagnosis but should not delay treatment. First-line therapy consists of broad-spectrum antibiotics covering N. gonorrhoeae, C. trachomatis, and anaerobes—typically ceftriaxone 1g IM stat plus doxycycline 100mg BD for 14 days plus metronidazole 400-500mg BD for 14 days. [1,2] Partner notification and treatment are essential components of management to prevent reinfection.

Complications include tubo-ovarian abscess (TOA) requiring surgical intervention, Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome (perihepatitis with characteristic "violin string" adhesions causing right upper quadrant pain), and long-term reproductive morbidity. Early recognition, prompt treatment, and comprehensive sexual health screening are paramount to reducing the burden of PID and its sequelae. [6,7]

Clinical Pearls

"Low Threshold to Treat": PID is a clinical diagnosis. Waiting for laboratory confirmation risks irreversible tubal damage. If PID is suspected based on minimum criteria (pelvic pain + cervical motion/uterine/adnexal tenderness), initiate empirical antibiotic therapy immediately.

"Polymicrobial Reality": While STIs (N. gonorrhoeae and C. trachomatis) are the classic culprits, up to 30-40% of PID is polymicrobial, involving endogenous vaginal flora (anaerobes, G. vaginalis, Enterobacteriaceae). Antibiotic regimens must provide broad coverage.

"Cervical Motion Tenderness = Chandelier Sign": Pain elicited by moving the cervix laterally during bimanual examination is a highly suggestive (though not specific) sign of peritoneal inflammation from PID.

"Always Exclude Ectopic Pregnancy": A pregnancy test is mandatory in all women of reproductive age presenting with pelvic pain. Ectopic pregnancy is a critical differential and can coexist with or mimic PID.

"Silent Infertility": Subclinical or "silent" PID (especially with C. trachomatis) causes significant tubal damage without overt symptoms, presenting later as unexplained infertility. This underscores the importance of opportunistic STI screening.

"TOA: Think Surgical": Tubo-ovarian abscesses are a surgical emergency if large (> 8-10cm), ruptured, or not responding to IV antibiotics within 48-72 hours. Early imaging and surgical consultation are crucial.

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2. Epidemiology

Demographics

Risk Factors

Protective Factors

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3. Aetiology and Pathophysiology

Microbiology

PID is a polymicrobial infection in the majority of cases, involving sexually transmitted organisms and/or endogenous vaginal and cervical flora. [1,2]

Causative Organisms

Co-Infections

• Dual infection with N. gonorrhoeae and C. trachomatis occurs in 10-40% of gonorrhoea cases. [1]
• Bacterial vaginosis coexists in up to 60% of PID cases and contributes polymicrobial flora. [2]

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Pathophysiology

Step 1: Cervical Infection

• STI pathogens (N. gonorrhoeae, C. trachomatis, M. genitalium) or endogenous organisms colonize the endocervix.
• Cervical ectopy (particularly in adolescents) exposes vulnerable columnar epithelium to vaginal flora and STIs.
• Cervicitis develops with mucopurulent discharge and friable cervix.

Step 2: Ascending Infection

• Bacteria ascend through the endocervical canal into the endometrial cavity (endometritis).
• Facilitated by:
  • Retrograde menstruation (menstrual flow carries bacteria upward).
  • Uterine instrumentation (IUD insertion, abortion, D&C) disrupts cervical mucus plug.
  • Reduced cervical mucus barrier (during menstruation, ovulation).
  • Impaired local immunity (BV alters pH and immune function).
• Bacteria traverse the endometrium and enter the fallopian tubes (salpingitis).

Step 3: Tubal and Peritoneal Inflammation

• Acute salpingitis: Tubal lumen fills with purulent exudate. Tubal epithelium (ciliated columnar cells) is damaged by inflammatory mediators (cytokines, reactive oxygen species, neutrophil proteases).
• Tubal wall edema and hyperemia: Tubes become thickened and boggy.
• Pyosalpinx: Tubal lumen fills with pus; fimbriae may seal, creating a closed abscess.
• Peritubal adhesions: Inflammatory exudate spills from fimbriated ends into the pelvic peritoneum, causing:
  • Pelvic peritonitis (diffuse lower abdominal tenderness, rebound).
  • Adhesion formation (fibrin deposition → fibrotic bands).
• Tubo-ovarian complex/abscess (TOA): Inflammatory mass involving tube and ovary. Abscess formation occurs in 10-30% of severe PID. [6]

Step 4: Perihepatitis (Fitz-Hugh-Curtis Syndrome)

• In 5-15% of PID cases, infection spreads via peritoneal cavity to liver capsule. [7]
• Results in perihepatitis with characteristic "violin string" adhesions between anterior liver surface and parietal peritoneum.
• Presents as right upper quadrant pain (may mimic cholecystitis or hepatitis).
• Most commonly associated with C. trachomatis and N. gonorrhoeae. [7]

Step 5: Resolution and Sequelae

• With treatment: Acute inflammation resolves, but tubal damage persists.
  • "Ciliary destruction: Loss of ciliated epithelium impairs ovum transport."
  • "Fibrosis and scarring: Tubal lumen narrowing or complete occlusion."
  • "Peritubal adhesions: Distort tubal anatomy and ovum capture."
• Sequelae:
  • "Tubal factor infertility: 10-20% after 1 episode, 25-50% after 2 episodes, > 50% after ≥3 episodes. [3,4]"
  • "Ectopic pregnancy: 6-10 fold increased risk due to impaired tubal transport. [4]"
  • "Chronic pelvic pain: 18-35% of women. Due to adhesions and chronic inflammation. [3]"
• Without treatment: Progression to TOA, abscess rupture, sepsis, and death (rare in modern healthcare).

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Molecular and Immunological Mechanisms

Host-Pathogen Interactions

• C. trachomatis: Intracellular bacterium that evades immune clearance. Induces heat shock proteins (HSP60) that trigger delayed hypersensitivity response and chronic inflammation, leading to tubal scarring even after bacterial clearance. [11]
• N. gonorrhoeae: Produces lipooligosaccharide (LOS) endotoxin causing intense acute inflammation with neutrophil infiltration and tissue damage. Antigenic variation (pili, Opa proteins) aids immune evasion.
• Cytokine storm: IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α mediate inflammatory response. Excessive cytokine release contributes to tissue damage.
• Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs): Upregulated in PID. Degrade extracellular matrix and contribute to tubal structural damage.

Immune Response

• Innate immunity: TLR2 and TLR4 recognition of bacterial PAMPs (pathogen-associated molecular patterns) triggers inflammatory cascade.
• Adaptive immunity: CD4+ T-cell response (Th1 and Th17) mediates chronic inflammation and fibrosis.
• Antibody response: Antibodies to HSP60 (C. trachomatis) are markers of tubal damage and infertility risk.

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4. Clinical Presentation

Symptoms

PID presents along a spectrum from asymptomatic to severe.

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Examination Findings

Vital Signs

Abdominal Examination

Pelvic Examination (Bimanual and Speculum)

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Diagnostic Criteria

CDC Minimum Criteria (High Sensitivity for Diagnosis) [1,2]

Empirical treatment should be initiated if ALL of the following are present in sexually active young women or women at risk for STIs:

1. Pelvic or lower abdominal pain (no other apparent cause), AND
2. ONE or more of the following on pelvic examination:
   • Cervical motion tenderness, OR
   • Uterine tenderness, OR
   • Adnexal tenderness.

Rationale: Low threshold minimizes false negatives and prevents long-term sequelae. Specificity is improved by adding additional criteria.

Additional Supportive Criteria (Increase Specificity)

• Oral temperature > 38.3°C (101°F).
• Abnormal cervical or vaginal mucopurulent discharge.
• Presence of abundant WBCs on saline microscopy of vaginal fluid (> 10 WBC/HPF).
• Elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) or C-reactive protein (CRP).
• Laboratory documentation of cervical infection with N. gonorrhoeae or C. trachomatis (NAAT positive).

Definitive Criteria (Gold Standard, Rarely Needed)

• Histopathologic evidence of endometritis on endometrial biopsy.
• Transvaginal ultrasound (TVUS) or MRI showing thickened, fluid-filled tubes with or without free pelvic fluid or TOA.
• Laparoscopic findings: Direct visualization of inflamed, edematous tubes with purulent exudate or tubo-ovarian abscess.

Note: Definitive criteria are NOT required for diagnosis or treatment. Empirical treatment should be initiated based on clinical suspicion (minimum criteria).

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Clinical Spectrum

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5. Differential Diagnosis

PID is a diagnosis of exclusion in women with acute pelvic pain. Critical to rule out surgical emergencies.

Key Differentiating Point: Always perform pregnancy test to exclude ectopic pregnancy before diagnosing PID.

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6. Investigations

Essential Investigations (Perform Before Starting Treatment)

Note: Do NOT delay antibiotic treatment while awaiting swab results. Empirical therapy should begin immediately based on clinical suspicion.

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Supportive Investigations

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Imaging

Key Point: Imaging is NOT required to diagnose uncomplicated PID. Imaging is indicated for suspected TOA, treatment failure, or diagnostic uncertainty.

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Advanced / Invasive Investigations

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7. Management

General Principles

1. Low Threshold for Treatment: PID is a clinical diagnosis. Initiate empirical antibiotics if minimum diagnostic criteria met. Do NOT wait for microbiological confirmation.
2. Broad-Spectrum Coverage: Empirical antibiotics must cover N. gonorrhoeae, C. trachomatis, anaerobes, and Gram-negative organisms.
3. Antibiotic Duration: 14 days total course (except single-dose IM ceftriaxone).
4. Partner Notification and Treatment: Mandatory. Treat all sexual partners from previous 60 days (or most recent partner if > 60 days).
5. Sexual Abstinence: Until patient and all partners have completed treatment and are symptom-free.
6. Follow-Up: Review at 48-72 hours (clinical improvement expected) and 2-4 weeks (complete resolution, test-of-cure if indicated).
7. IUD Management: IUDs do NOT routinely need removal. Remove if no clinical improvement after 48-72h or severe PID / TOA.

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Antibiotic Regimens

Outpatient (Oral) Regimen for Mild-Moderate PID

First-Line (BASHH/CDC Guidelines) [1,2]:

Notes:

• IM ceftriaxone ensures compliance and covers cephalosporin-resistant gonorrhoea.
• Doxycycline is superior to azithromycin for C. trachomatis (higher cure rates, less resistance). [1]
• Metronidazole provides anaerobic coverage and treats coexistent BV.

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Alternative Regimen (If Ceftriaxone Unavailable or Allergy):

Notes:

• Quinolone resistance in N. gonorrhoeae is > 50% in many regions. Use only if local sensitivities confirm susceptibility.
• Allergy alternative: Cefoxitin 2g IM + probenecid 1g PO (single dose) can replace ceftriaxone.

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Macrolide-Based (If Doxycycline Contraindicated, e.g., Pregnancy):

Pregnancy Considerations:

• Doxycycline is contraindicated in pregnancy (teratogenic).
• Use azithromycin 1g weekly x2 or erythromycin 500mg QDS x14 days instead.
• Admit pregnant women for IV therapy and close monitoring (higher risk of complications).

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Inpatient (IV) Regimen for Moderate-Severe PID

Indications for Admission:

• Severe pain, unable to tolerate oral therapy, vomiting.
• High fever (> 38.5°C), sepsis.
• Suspected or confirmed TOA.
• Failed outpatient therapy (no improvement at 48-72h).
• Pregnancy.
• Immunosuppression (HIV, immunosuppressive drugs).
• Diagnostic uncertainty (surgical abdomen not excluded).

First-Line IV Regimen:

Duration:

• Continue IV therapy until clinical improvement (usually 24-48 hours): afebrile for 24h, reduced pain, tolerating oral.
• Switch to oral therapy to complete 14 days total.

Alternative IV Regimens:

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Management of Tubo-Ovarian Abscess (TOA)

TOA occurs in 10-30% of hospitalized PID cases and is a surgical emergency if ruptured. [6]

Medical Management (First-Line for Stable Patients)

• IV antibiotics as above (ceftriaxone + doxycycline + metronidazole).
• Serial TVUS to monitor abscess size.
• Clinical monitoring: Vital signs, pain, inflammatory markers (CRP, WCC).

Success Criteria:

• Clinical improvement within 48-72 hours (afebrile, reduced pain).
• Reduction in abscess size on follow-up imaging.

Duration: IV antibiotics for 24-48h after clinical improvement, then switch to oral to complete 14 days total. Some clinicians extend to 21-28 days for large TOA.

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Surgical/Interventional Management

Indications:

• Large abscess (> 8-10 cm diameter).
• No response to IV antibiotics after 48-72 hours (persistent fever, worsening pain, rising inflammatory markers).
• Suspected abscess rupture (acute abdomen, peritonitis, shock).
• Haemodynamic instability (septic shock).

Options:

Post-Operative:

• Continue IV antibiotics for 24-48h, then oral to complete 14 days total.
• Follow-up imaging to ensure resolution.

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Mycoplasma genitalium Considerations

• M. genitalium is detected in 10-15% of PID cases and is often resistant to macrolides (azithromycin). [9,10]
• Standard PID regimens (ceftriaxone + doxycycline + metronidazole) may not adequately cover M. genitalium.
• Suspect M. genitalium if:
  • Treatment failure with standard regimen.
  • Partner treated but patient has persistent symptoms.
  • Known M. genitalium prevalence in region.
• Testing: NAAT for M. genitalium (if available) with macrolide resistance genotyping.
• Treatment:
  • "First-line: Moxifloxacin 400mg PO OD for 10-14 days (if quinolone-sensitive)."
  • "Alternative: Pristinamycin (where available) or doxycycline 100mg BD for 7 days followed by moxifloxacin 400mg OD for 7 days (sequential therapy). [10]"

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Partner Management

Critical Component: PID is predominantly an STI-related disease. Reinfection is common without partner treatment.

• Contact Tracing: Identify all sexual partners within 60 days prior to symptom onset (or most recent partner if > 60 days).
• Partner Treatment: Treat partners empirically for gonorrhoea and chlamydia (ceftriaxone 1g IM + doxycycline 100mg BD x7 days OR azithromycin 1g stat).
• Expedited Partner Therapy (EPT): Where legally permissible, provide patient with treatment for partners.
• Sexual Abstinence: Until both patient and partner(s) complete treatment.
• Full STI Screening: Offer partners full STI screen.

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IUD Management

• IUDs do NOT increase long-term PID risk (risk is transient in first 3 weeks post-insertion only).
• Routine removal is NOT necessary in most PID cases. [12]
• Remove IUD if:
  • No clinical improvement after 48-72 hours of appropriate antibiotics.
  • Severe PID or TOA.
  • Patient preference (after counseling on contraceptive alternatives).
• If IUD removed, provide alternative contraception immediately.

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Analgesia and Supportive Care

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Follow-Up

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8. Complications

Acute Complications

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Long-Term Complications (Reproductive Sequelae)

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Psychological and Social Complications

• Anxiety and Depression: Chronic pain, infertility, relationship strain.
• Sexual Dysfunction: Dyspareunia, fear of reinfection, reduced libido.
• Relationship Stress: Partner notification, trust issues, infertility.
• Socioeconomic Impact: Lost work/education days, healthcare costs, IVF expenses.

Management: Holistic care. Psychological support, sexual health counseling, fertility counseling, chronic pain management.

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9. Prognosis and Outcomes

With Prompt Treatment

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Delayed or Inadequate Treatment

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Subclinical PID

• 60-70% of chlamydial PID is asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic ("silent PID"). [5]
• Tubal damage occurs despite absence of symptoms, presenting later as unexplained infertility or ectopic pregnancy.
• Underscores importance of opportunistic STI screening in at-risk populations (young, sexually active, multiple partners).

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Factors Associated with Worse Prognosis

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10. Prevention

Primary Prevention (Prevent Initial Infection)

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Secondary Prevention (Prevent Complications in Diagnosed PID)

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Tertiary Prevention (Prevent Long-Term Sequelae)

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11. Special Populations

Pregnancy

• PID is rare in pregnancy (progesterone-thickened cervical mucus provides barrier), but when it occurs, it is severe and associated with miscarriage, preterm labour, and maternal sepsis. [2]
• Presentation: Often atypical. Lower threshold for admission.
• Management:
  • Admit all pregnant women with suspected PID.
  • "IV antibiotics: Avoid doxycycline (teratogenic). Use ceftriaxone + azithromycin + metronidazole or clindamycin + gentamicin."
  • "Fetal monitoring: Risk of preterm labour."
  • "Multidisciplinary care: Obstetrics + ID/Gynae."

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HIV-Positive Women

• More severe PID, slower response to treatment, higher risk of TOA formation. [2]
• Same antibiotic regimens, but lower threshold for admission and prolonged IV therapy.
• Ensure antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence.

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Adolescents

• Highest risk group for PID (peak age 15-19). [2]
• Cervical ectopy (columnar epithelium on ectocervix) increases STI susceptibility.
• Low threshold for STI screening and treatment.
• Confidentiality and safeguarding considerations (sexual exploitation, abuse).
• Partner notification may be complex (age, consent).

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Post-Menopausal Women

• PID is rare post-menopause (atrophic vaginal mucosa less susceptible to infection).
• If PID suspected, consider alternative diagnoses (malignancy, diverticulitis, appendicitis).
• Post-procedural PID (e.g., after endometrial biopsy, hysteroscopy) more common than spontaneous PID.

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12. Evidence and Guidelines

Key Guidelines

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Key Evidence

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13. Patient and Layperson Explanation

What is PID?

Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) is an infection of the womb (uterus), fallopian tubes, and ovaries. It usually starts with a sexually transmitted infection (STI) like chlamydia or gonorrhoea in the vagina or cervix, which then spreads upwards into the normally sterile pelvic organs.

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What are the symptoms?

• Pain in the lower tummy or pelvis (usually both sides).
• Pain during sex (especially deep penetration).
• Unusual vaginal discharge (may be yellow, green, or smelly).
• Bleeding between periods or after sex.
• Pain when peeing (sometimes).
• Fever or feeling unwell (in more severe cases).

Important: Some women have no symptoms at all ("silent PID") but can still develop complications like infertility.

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Why is it serious?

If PID is not treated quickly, it can cause:

• Infertility (difficulty getting pregnant) – Due to scarring of the fallopian tubes. Risk is about 10-20% after one infection, but increases with repeated infections.
• Ectopic pregnancy – A pregnancy in the wrong place (fallopian tube instead of womb), which is dangerous and requires urgent treatment.
• Long-term pelvic pain – Ongoing pain that can affect daily life and relationships.
• Pelvic abscess – A collection of pus that may need drainage or surgery.

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How is it treated?

• Antibiotics – Usually a combination of 2-3 different antibiotics taken for 14 days. One is often given as an injection.
• Pain relief – Paracetamol or ibuprofen.
• Rest – Take it easy while recovering.
• Partner treatment – Very important. All recent sexual partners (last 2-3 months) must be treated, even if they have no symptoms. Otherwise, you can get reinfected.
• Avoid sex – Until you and your partner(s) have finished treatment.

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Will I need to go to hospital?

Most women can be treated at home with tablets. You'll need to go to hospital if:

• You're very unwell (high fever, severe pain, vomiting).
• You have a pelvic abscess.
• You're pregnant.
• You're not getting better after 2-3 days of antibiotics at home.

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Will I be able to have children?

Most women treated promptly for PID go on to have normal pregnancies. The key is getting treatment as soon as possible to minimize damage to the fallopian tubes. Repeated infections increase the risk of fertility problems, so preventing reinfection (treating partners, using condoms) is very important.

If you do have fertility problems in the future, treatments like IVF (in vitro fertilization) can help.

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How can I prevent PID?

• Use condoms during sex (reduces STI risk by 50-70%).
• Get regular STI tests if you're sexually active (especially if you're under 25 or have a new partner).
• Treat STIs promptly before they spread to the pelvic organs.
• Make sure partners are treated to avoid reinfection.
• Limit number of sexual partners.

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When should I see a doctor urgently?

• Severe pelvic or abdominal pain.
• High fever (> 38.5°C).
• Vomiting or unable to eat/drink.
• Fainting or feeling dizzy (may indicate internal bleeding or severe infection).
• Pregnancy test is positive (need to rule out ectopic pregnancy).

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14. Examination Focus (for Medical Students and Trainees)

High-Yield Facts

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Common Exam Questions (SBA/MCQ)

Question 1: Most Common Cause

A 19-year-old sexually active woman presents with 3 days of bilateral lower abdominal pain and vaginal discharge. On examination, there is cervical motion tenderness. What is the most likely causative organism?

A. Neisseria gonorrhoeae
B. Chlamydia trachomatis ✅
C. Mycoplasma genitalium
D. Escherichia coli
E. Bacteroides fragilis

Answer: B. Chlamydia trachomatis – Most common identified organism in PID (25-40% of cases). [1,2]

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Question 2: First-Line Treatment

What is the first-line outpatient antibiotic regimen for uncomplicated PID according to BASHH/CDC guidelines?

A. Azithromycin + metronidazole
B. Ciprofloxacin + doxycycline
C. Ceftriaxone + doxycycline + metronidazole ✅
D. Amoxicillin + clavulanate
E. Gentamicin + clindamycin

Answer: C. Ceftriaxone 1g IM (stat) + doxycycline 100mg BD PO (14d) + metronidazole 400mg BD PO (14d). [1,2]

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Question 3: Fitz-Hugh-Curtis Syndrome

A 22-year-old woman with PID develops right upper quadrant pain. Laparoscopy reveals "violin string" adhesions between the liver capsule and anterior abdominal wall. What is the diagnosis?

A. Acute cholecystitis
B. Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome ✅
C. Hepatitis
D. Subphrenic abscess
E. Peptic ulcer disease

Answer: B. Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome – Perihepatitis complicating PID. Characteristic "violin string" adhesions. [7]

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Question 4: IUD Management

A 25-year-old woman with an IUD presents with PID. She is clinically stable with mild symptoms. How should the IUD be managed?

A. Remove immediately
B. Leave in situ and start antibiotics ✅
C. Remove after completing antibiotics
D. Remove only if STI-positive
E. Replace with copper IUD

Answer: B. Leave IUD in situ. Routine removal not required. Remove only if no improvement after 48-72h or severe PID/TOA. [1,12]

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Question 5: Infertility Risk

What is the approximate risk of tubal factor infertility after one episode of PID?

A. 2-5%
B. 10-20% ✅
C. 30-40%
D. 50-60%
E. > 70%

Answer: B. 10-20% after one episode. Risk increases to 25-50% after two episodes and > 50% after three or more. [3,4]

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OSCE Stations

Station 1: History Taking

Scenario: 20-year-old woman with lower abdominal pain.

Key Questions:

• Pain: Onset, duration, location (bilateral?), character, severity, exacerbating/relieving factors.
• Gynae symptoms: Vaginal discharge (colour, odour), abnormal bleeding (IMB, PCB), dyspareunia.
• Sexual health: Sexually active? New partner? Multiple partners? Condom use? Previous STIs?
• Last menstrual period: Exclude pregnancy/ectopic.
• Contraception: IUD (recent insertion?), COCP?
• Past medical history: Previous PID, STIs, pelvic surgery.
• Systems review: Fever, nausea, vomiting, urinary symptoms (dysuria, frequency), bowel symptoms.
• Red flags: Pregnancy symptoms, severe pain, fever, syncope.

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Station 2: Bimanual Examination (Manikin)

Steps:

1. Consent, chaperone, position (supine, lithotomy).
2. Abdominal exam: Inspect, palpate (lower abdominal tenderness? Rebound? Masses?).
3. Speculum exam: Visualize cervix (mucopurulent discharge? Friability?). Take swabs (NAAT for gonorrhoea/chlamydia, HVS).
4. Bimanual exam:
   • Assess uterus (size, position, tenderness).
   • Assess adnexa (tenderness? Masses?).
   • Cervical motion tenderness: Gently move cervix laterally with examining fingers. Elicitation of pain = positive "chandelier sign".
5. Thank patient, explain findings.

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Station 3: Data Interpretation

Case: 23-year-old woman, pelvic pain, fever 38.3°C. Pregnancy test negative. TVUS shows thickened, fluid-filled tubes bilaterally.

Questions:

1. Diagnosis? Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID).
2. Next step? Initiate empirical antibiotics (ceftriaxone + doxycycline + metronidazole). Full STI screen.
3. Admit or outpatient? Borderline. Fever > 38°C suggests moderate PID. Consider admission for IV antibiotics if unable to tolerate oral or severe pain.
4. Key management? Partner notification and treatment. Follow-up at 48-72h.

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Viva Questions and Model Answers

Q1: "Why do we use a low threshold to treat PID?"

Answer: PID is a clinical diagnosis with no definitive test. Delaying treatment while waiting for laboratory confirmation risks irreversible tubal damage, which can lead to infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and chronic pelvic pain. Studies show that even a few days' delay increases complications. Therefore, if minimum diagnostic criteria are met (pelvic pain + cervical motion/uterine/adnexal tenderness), we initiate empirical antibiotics immediately. The consequences of under-treating far outweigh the risks of over-treating.

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Q2: "Why do we give three antibiotics for PID?"

Answer: PID is often polymicrobial. The regimen must cover:

• N. gonorrhoeae (including resistant strains) → Ceftriaxone (IM cephalosporin).
• C. trachomatis and M. genitalium → Doxycycline (tetracycline).
• Anaerobes (Bacteroides, Prevotella) and bacterial vaginosis → Metronidazole.

Single-agent therapy would miss important pathogens and lead to treatment failure. Broad coverage ensures resolution and prevents complications.

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Q3: "What is the mechanism of tubal infertility in PID?"

Answer: PID causes tubal epithelial damage through:

1. Ciliary destruction: The tubal lining has ciliated epithelium that propels the ovum toward the uterus. Inflammatory mediators (cytokines, proteases, reactive oxygen species) destroy cilia.
2. Fibrosis and scarring: Chronic inflammation and healing lead to collagen deposition, narrowing or completely occluding the tubal lumen.
3. Peritubal adhesions: Inflammatory exudate causes fibrous bands between the tube, ovary, and surrounding structures, distorting anatomy and preventing ovum capture.

Result: Tubal factor infertility. Risk increases with each PID episode due to cumulative damage.

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Q4: "When would you admit a patient with PID?"

Answer: Indications for admission include:

• Severe symptoms: High fever (> 38.5°C), severe pain, vomiting (unable to tolerate oral antibiotics).
• Suspected TOA (palpable mass, no improvement with outpatient therapy).
• Failed outpatient treatment (no improvement or worsening after 48-72h).
• Pregnancy (higher risk of complications, requires monitoring).
• Immunosuppression (HIV, on immunosuppressants).
• Diagnostic uncertainty (cannot exclude surgical abdomen like appendicitis or ectopic pregnancy).
• Social factors (inability to comply with outpatient therapy, safeguarding concerns).

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Q5: "What is Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome and how do you diagnose it?"

Answer: Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome is perihepatitis complicating PID. It occurs in 5-15% of PID cases when infection ascends via the peritoneal cavity to the liver capsule, causing inflammation and "violin string" adhesions between the liver and anterior abdominal wall. Patients present with right upper quadrant pain (sharp, pleuritic) which may mimic cholecystitis, pneumonia, or PE.

Diagnosis:

• Clinical suspicion: Young woman with PID + RUQ pain.
• Laboratory: Elevated transaminases (mild), positive STI screen (gonorrhoea/chlamydia).
• Imaging: USS liver (often normal or mild perihepatic fluid). CT may show perihepatic enhancement.
• Definitive: Laparoscopy (visualize "violin string" adhesions).

Treatment: Same antibiotics as PID. Resolves with treatment. Adhesions may persist but usually asymptomatic. [7]

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15. References

Primary Sources

1. British Association for Sexual Health and HIV (BASHH). UK National Guideline for the Management of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease. 2019. Available at: https://www.bashhguidelines.org/media/1217/pid-update-2019.pdf

2. Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(4):1-187. PMID: 34292926. DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.rr7004a1

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