Nephrology
Browse 81 topics in nephrology, including presentations, diagnoses, procedures, tools, and exam links.
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Use the filters below to move between emergency clusters, core pathways, exam topics, procedures, and the most relevant clinical atlas pages.
Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)
The diagnosis is established using the KDIGO (2012) criteria , which defines AKI as a rise in serum creatinine of ≥26.5 µmol/L within 48 hours or a 1.5-fold increase from baseline. Management is focused on identifying...
Acute Kidney Injury in Children
Acute kidney injury (AKI) in children represents a sudden decline in kidney function characterised by rising serum creat... MRCPCH exam preparation.
Acute Kidney Injury Pathology
Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) is classified by KDIGO into Stages 1-3 based on creatinine rise and urine output. Pathophysiologically, AKI is divided into pre-renal (hypoperfusion), intrinsic (tubular, glomerular,...
Acute Nephritic Syndrome
Acute Nephritic Syndrome is a clinical constellation resulting from inflammatory injury to the glomerulus. It is charact... MRCP exam preparation.
AL Amyloidosis
AL amyloidosis (immunoglobulin light chain amyloidosis) is a rare, systemic protein misfolding disorder caused by the ex... MRCP exam preparation.
Alport Syndrome
The classic clinical triad comprises progressive renal disease (haematuria progressing to proteinuria and renal failure), bilateral sensorineural hearing loss, and characteristic ocular abnormalities (anterior...
Amyloidosis
AL Amyloidosis (Light Chain) : Most common systemic form. Due to clonal plasma cell disorder producing toxic immunoglobulin light chains (kappa or lambda). Medical emergency requiring rapid intervention. ATTR...
Anaesthesia in Renal Failure
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) stage 4-5 (eGFR <30 mL/min) and acute kidney injury (AKI) present significant perioperative risks due to fluid overload, electrolyte abnormalities, coagulopathy, and altered drug...
ANCA-Associated Vasculitis
1.1 Summary ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV) represents a group of rare, heterogeneous, and life-threatening multi-system autoimmune disorders characterized by necrotizing inflammation of small-to-medium-sized blood...
Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD)
ADPKD is a Systemic Disease with extrarenal manifestations including Hepatic Cysts (Most Common) , Intracranial Aneurysms (5-10%) , Cardiac Valve Abnormalities , and Colonic Diverticulae . Complications include...
Bartter's and Gitelman's Syndromes
These conditions are distinguished by their site of tubular dysfunction: Bartter's syndrome affects the thick ascending limb of the Loop of Henle (mimics loop diuretics such as furosemide) Gitelman's syndrome affects...
Calcium Disorders: Hypocalcemia and Hypercalcemia
Calcium gluconate 10% 10-20 mL IV over 10-20 minutes (0.9-1.8 mmol Ca2+)... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Second Part Hot Case exam preparation.
Chronic Kidney Disease
It is a silent killer. Most patients are asymptomatic until advanced stages (eGFR less than 15). However, even mild CKD is a potent risk factor for Cardiovascular Disease (Section 9). Patients are far more likely to...
Chronic Kidney Disease in the ICU
Assess dialysis access patency and recent dialysis schedule... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Second Part Hot Case exam preparation.
CKD Mineral Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD)
CKD Mineral Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD) is a systemic disorder of mineral and bone metabolism due to Chronic Kidney Disease,... MRCP exam preparation.
Conn's Syndrome (Primary Hyperaldosteronism)
Conn's syndrome, or primary aldosteronism (PA), represents the most common cause of secondary hypertension and potentially curable form of hypertension. First described by Jerome Conn in 1955, it is characterised by...
Contrast-Induced Nephropathy / Contrast-Associated Acute Kidney Injury (CA-AKI)
Definition (KDIGO): Serum creatinine rise ≥26.5 μmol/L within 48 hours OR ≥50% increase within 7 days of contrast exp... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Secon
Crush Injury
Crush injury is defined as compression of extremities or other body parts for prolonged periods, leading to tissue ischa... ACEM Primary Written, ACEM Primary V
Crush Injury & Crush Syndrome
Crush injury is compressive trauma to body parts causing direct tissue damage through mechanical disruption and ischemia... MRCP, EDIC exam preparation.
Cryoglobulinaemic Vasculitis
Cryoglobulinaemic vasculitis is a systemic small-vessel vasculitis mediated by cryoglobulins—immunoglobulins that revers... MRCP exam preparation.
Diabetes Insipidus (DI)
In health, AVP is synthesised in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary in response to rising plasma osmolality or falling blood volume, promoting water reabsorption in the renal collecting ducts...
Diabetic Nephropathy (Diabetic Kidney Disease)
Diabetic Nephropathy (DN), now comprehensively termed Diabetic Kidney Disease (DKD) , represents the leading cause of Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) and End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) globally, accounting for...
Fanconi Syndrome
The clinical hallmarks include: Renal glycosuria despite normoglycaemia Generalised aminoaciduria Phosphaturia leading to hypophosphataemic rickets/osteomalacia Type 2 (proximal) renal tubular acidosis from...
Glomerulonephritis
Glomerulonephritis (GN) represents a heterogeneous group of immune-mediated kidney diseases characterised by inflammatio... MRCP exam preparation.
Glomerulonephritis (Nephritic Syndrome)
Glomerulonephritis (GN) represents a heterogeneous group of immune-mediated disorders characterized by inflammation of the glomeruli, the microscopic filtration units of the kidney. The condition classically presents...
Goodpasture's Disease (Anti-GBM)
Goodpasture's disease (anti-GBM disease) is a rare but life-threatening autoimmune disorder characterized by circulating antibodies directed against the α3 chain of type IV collagen in the glomerular basement membrane...
Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis (GPA)
A comprehensive, evidence-based guide to Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis (GPA), covering c-ANCA/PR3 pathogenesis, pulmonary-renal syndrome, necrotising granulomatous inflammation, and modern immunosuppressive therapy...
Henoch-Schönlein Purpura (IgA Vasculitis)
Henoch-Schönlein Purpura (HSP), now formally known as IgA Vasculitis (IgAV) , is the most common systemic vasculitis in children , with an incidence of 10-20 per 100,000 children per year. It is a small vessel...
Hepatorenal Syndrome (HRS)
HRS occurs almost exclusively in the context of decompensated cirrhosis with ascites, though it can occasionally complicate acute liver failure and alcoholic hepatitis. The syndrome carries an extremely poor...
Hepatorenal Syndrome (HRS)
Volume expansion with 20-25% albumin (1 g/kg/day for 2 days, max 100g/day)... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Second Part Hot Case exam preparation.
Hyperkalaemia (Emergency)
Hyperkalaemia is a life-threatening electrolyte emergency defined by a serum potassium concentration 5.5 mmol/L. It is... MRCP exam preparation.
Hypernatraemia (Adult)
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to hypernatraemia covering definition, classification by volume status, causes including diabetes insipidus, water deprivation testing, clinical features, and safe correction...
Hypertensive Emergency in Adults
Hypertensive emergency is severe hypertension (typically SBP 180 mmHg and/or DBP 120 mmHg) with evidence of acute end-organ damage requiring immediate blood pressure reduction within minutes to hours to prevent...
Hypertensive Nephropathy
It is conventionally cited as the second most common cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) worldwide (after diabetic kidney disease), although the true contribution of hypertension as a primary cause versus a...
Hypocalcaemia
Common aetiologies include hypoparathyroidism (most frequently post-surgical following thyroidectomy or parathyroidectomy), vitamin D deficiency, chronic kidney disease-mineral bone disorder (CKD-MBD),...
Hyponatraemia in Adults
The clinical significance of hyponatraemia extends far beyond a laboratory abnormality. Acute symptomatic hyponatraemia ... MRCP exam preparation.
Hypophosphataemia
The most clinically significant scenario is refeeding syndrome , where malnourished or starved patients develop acute, life-threatening hypophosphataemia upon carbohydrate refeeding due to rapid intracellular...
IgA Nephropathy
Feature Description --------- ------------- Pathognomonic finding Dominant or co-dominant mesangial IgA deposits on immunofluorescence Classic presentation Synpharyngitic haematuria (macroscopic haematuria within...
IgA Vasculitis (Henoch-Schönlein Purpura)
IgA Vasculitis (IgAV), formerly known as Henoch-Schönlein Purpura (HSP), is the most common systemic vasculitis in childhood, with an annual incidence of 10-20 per 100,000 children. It is an immune-complex mediated...
IgA Vasculitis (Henoch-Schönlein Purpura)
IgA Vasculitis (IgAV), formerly known as Henoch-Schönlein Purpura (HSP) , is the most common systemic vasculitis in childhood , characterised by IgA1-dominant immune complex-mediated small vessel vasculitis affecting...
Kidney Stones (Nephrolithiasis)
Nephrolithiasis (kidney stones) is one of the most common urological conditions, affecting 10-12% of the global populati... FRCS(Urol) exam preparation.
Leptospirosis (Weil's Disease)
Leptospirosis is a spirochaetal zoonosis of global significance, representing the most common zoonotic infection worldwi... MRCP exam preparation.
Lupus Nephritis
Lupus nephritis (LN) represents one of the most serious manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), characteri... MRCP exam preparation.
Membranous Nephropathy
The seminal discovery of the M-type Phospholipase A2 Receptor (PLA2R) as the target antigen in 2009 revolutionized our understanding of primary MN, transforming it from an idiopathic condition to a well-characterized...
Minimal Change Disease (Adult)
Minimal change disease (MCD) is a primary glomerular disorder characterised by nephrotic-range proteinuria with normal g... MRCP exam preparation.
Multiple Myeloma
The disease primarily affects older adults with a median age at diagnosis of approximately 70 years (range 65-74 years). The classic clinical features are remembered by the mnemonic "CRAB" : C alcium elevation...
Nephritic Syndrome
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to Nephritic Syndrome in adults, covering the classic pentad of haematuria, hypertension, oliguria, oedema and proteinuria. Distinguishes IgA nephropathy from post-streptococcal GN,...
Nephrotic Syndrome in Adults
Nephrotic syndrome is a clinical syndrome characterized by massive proteinuria leading to hypoalbuminaemia, oedema, and hyperlipidaemia. It represents glomerular dysfunction with loss of the filtration barrier's...
Oliguria in Adults
Oliguria is defined as urine output less than 0.5 mL/kg/hr in adults, or less than 400 mL per 24 hours in an average 70 ... MRCP exam preparation.
Phosphate and Magnesium Disorders in the ICU
Identify and treat underlying cause (refeeding, DKA treatment, diuretics, alcoholism)... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Second Part Hot Case exam preparation
Polyarteritis Nodosa
Polyarteritis nodosa (PAN) is a rare necrotizing vasculitis that primarily affects medium-sized muscular arteries, leadi... MRCP exam preparation.
Polyarteritis Nodosa (PAN)
PAN can be idiopathic (most cases in developed countries) or associated with Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) infection (classic association, now less than 5% due to vaccination programs). The disease affects multiple organ...
Posterior Urethral Valves (PUV)
The condition is increasingly diagnosed antenatally via ultrasound, typically manifesting as bilateral hydronephrosis, a distended thick-walled bladder, dilated posterior urethra (the pathognomonic "keyhole sign"),...
Potassium Disorders: Hypokalemia and Hyperkalemia
Cardiac membrane stabilisation: Calcium gluconate 10% 10-20 mL IV over 2-5 min (or calcium chloride 10% 5-10 mL via C... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Secon
Primary Hyperaldosteronism
First described by Jerome Conn in 1955 as a syndrome of hypertension, hypokalaemia, and adrenal adenoma, PA was initially considered rare. However, the introduction of the aldosterone-renin ratio (ARR) as a screening...
Primary Hyperaldosteronism (Conn's Syndrome)
Primary Hyperaldosteronism (PA), also known as Primary Aldosteronism or Conn Syndrome (when due to an adenoma), represen... MRCP exam preparation.
Primary Hyperparathyroidism
The condition is usually caused by a solitary parathyroid adenoma (80-85% of cases), though multigland hyperplasia (10-15%) and double adenomas (2-5%) also occur. Parathyroid carcinoma is rare, accounting for less...
Renal Abscess
A renal abscess is a focal collection of purulent material within or around the kidney parenchyma, representing a severe and potentially life-threatening complication of upper urinary tract infection. Renal abscesses...
Renal and Retroperitoneal Anatomy
Define/Describe - Overview of kidney position, relations, and structure... CICM First Part Written SAQ, CICM First Part Written MCQ exam preparation.
Renal Artery Stenosis
The clinical significance of RAS extends beyond hypertension to include ischaemic nephropathy, cardiovascular destabilisation syndromes such as recurrent flash pulmonary oedema (Pickering syndrome), and progressive...
Renal Replacement Therapy (RRT)
Haemodialysis (HD) : Extracorporeal blood purification using diffusive and convective solute removal across a semipermeable membrane. Usually performed in-centre 3 times weekly for 4 hours. Peritoneal Dialysis (PD) :...
Renal Stones (Urolithiasis)
Comprehensive evidence-based guide to urolithiasis covering epidemiology, stone composition, pathophysiology, emergency presentations, diagnostic imaging, medical expulsive therapy, and surgical interventions (ESWL,...
Renal Tubular Acidosis (RTA)
A comprehensive guide to renal tubular acidosis encompassing all four types, with detailed pathophysiology, molecular genetics, diagnostic algorithms, and evidence-based management strategies for postgraduate medical...
Renal Vein Thrombosis
Renal Vein Thrombosis (RVT) is the formation of thrombus within the main renal veins or their tributaries, leading to im... MRCP exam preparation.
Retroperitoneal Fibrosis (RPF)
RPF is classified as: Idiopathic (Primary) : 60-70% of cases, increasingly recognised as part of the IgG4-Related Disease (IgG4-RD) spectrum Secondary : 30-40%, caused by medications (ergot derivatives, methysergide,...
Rhabdomyolysis
Rhabdomyolysis represents a clinical syndrome ranging from asymptomatic CK elevation to life-threatening multi-organ fai... ACEM Fellowship Written, ACEM Fellow
SIADH (Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH) - Adult
The Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone secretion (SIADH) is the most common cause of euvolaemic hyponatraemi... MRCP exam preparation.
Sodium Disorders: Hyponatremia and Hypernatremia
Acute symptomatic hyponatremia: Hypertonic saline (3%) 100-150 mL bolus over 10-20 minutes... CICM Second Part Written, CICM Second Part Hot Case exam prepar
Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH Secretion (SIADH)
The Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion (SIADH), also termed Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuresis... MRCP, USMLE exam preparation.
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic, relapsing-remitting multisystem autoimmune disease characterised by los... MRCP exam preparation.
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is the distinct prototype of a systemic autoimmune disease. Unlike organ-specific des... MRCP exam preparation.
Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura and Haemolytic Uraemic Syndrome in Adults
Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) and haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) are life-threatening thrombotic microang... MRCP exam preparation.
Toxic Alcohol Poisoning (Methanol & Ethylene Glycol)
Toxic alcohol poisoning encompasses the ingestion of methanol and ethylene glycol, two substances that undergo hepatic metabolism via alcohol dehydrogenase to produce highly toxic organic acid metabolites. Methanol is...
Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC)
Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC) is an autosomal dominant multisystem genetic disorder caused by mutations in either the... MRCP, FRACP exam preparation.
Tubulointerstitial Nephritis (TIN)
TIN accounts for 15-27% of all cases of AKI in hospitalized patients and up to 10-15% of cases requiring renal biopsy for unexplained AKI. The condition has evolved considerably over the past two decades, with proton...
Tumour Lysis Syndrome
Key Facts Timing : Usually 12-72 hours after chemotherapy initiation; can be spontaneous High-risk tumours : Burkitt lymphoma, ALL, high-grade NHL, AML with hyperleukocytosis Metabolic tetrad : ↑K+, ↑uric acid,...
Urinary Tract Infection (Adult)
Urinary tract infection (UTI) represents one of the most prevalent bacterial infections worldwide, accounting for approximately 150 million cases annually and significant healthcare expenditure. UTIs are classified...
Urinary Tract Infection and Pyelonephritis (Adult)
Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) represent the most common bacterial infection in adults, accounting for over 150 million... MRCP exam preparation.
Vasculitis - Comprehensive
Vasculitis is inflammation of blood vessel walls leading to vessel damage, narrowing, occlusion, and subsequent organ is... MRCP exam preparation.
Vasculitis Emergency
Vasculitis emergencies occur when inflammation of blood vessels causes acute life-threatening organ damage requiring imm... MRCP, FRACP exam preparation.